🤝 Verse 5:1-2 — The Master Command: Fulfilling Covenants & The Sanctity of Rituals

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This powerful opening sets the tone for the entire Surah. “O you who have believed, fulfill [all] contracts.” This is a comprehensive command covering every type of covenant: the one between a person and Allah, between individuals, and between states. The immediate context is widely seen as the period following the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, a pivotal and controversial treaty between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Makkah. Some Muslims were unhappy with its terms, but this verse commanded absolute adherence. The verse then immediately transitions to specific ritual laws, particularly those related to the pilgrimage (Hajj/Umrah), such as not violating the sanctity of the sacred months, the sacrificial animals, or those journeying to the Sacred House. This was directly relevant as the treaty was all about the Muslims’ right to perform the pilgrimage.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is direct legislation and ethical guidance for the Muslim state in its foreign and domestic affairs.

“O you who have believed, fulfill [all] contracts. Lawful for you are the animals of grazing livestock except for what is recited to you…” (Qur’an 5:1)

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of being “obstructed from al-Masjid al-Haram” is a direct and undeniable reference to the events of Hudaybiyyah in 6 AH.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir and Al-Qurtubi overwhelmingly link verse 2 to the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. They explain that it commands the Muslims not to seek revenge against the Quraysh for the blockade of the previous year when they would finally be allowed to perform their Umrah the next year.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, the Quraysh of Makkah.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the supreme importance of fulfilling covenants and to regulate behavior related to the sacred rites of pilgrimage.
• Evidence Level: High (Direct textual and historical links to Hudaybiyyah).

✅ Verse 5:3 — The Final Word: Dietary Laws & The Perfection of Islam (Key Event)

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, The Farewell Pilgrimage (Dhul-Hijjah, 10 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is one of the most significant and historically-anchored verses in the entire Qur’an. The first part of the verse details the major categories of forbidden (haram) food: carrion, blood, pork, and animals slaughtered in the name of anyone other than Allah. It also forbids meat from animals that were strangled, beaten to death, fell from a height, were gored, or were partially eaten by a predator. However, it provides a crucial exception for one who is forced by severe hunger. The middle of the verse contains the iconic declaration: “This day those who disbelieve have despaired of [defeating] your religion; so fear them not, but fear Me. This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as your religion.” This monumental statement was revealed on the Day of Arafah, during the Prophet’s (ﷺ) one and only Hajj, the Farewell Pilgrimage, just a few months before his death.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah (legal ruling) and a specific, pivotal historical moment (The Farewell Pilgrimage).

“This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as your religion.” (Qur’an 5:3)

• Primary evidence: The explicit declaration of the “perfection of the religion” is a strong indicator of its finality. Its unique placement within a verse of law highlights its significance.
• Classical tafsir: There is a unanimous and powerful consensus from multiple companions, including Umar ibn al-Khattab, reported in Sahih al-Bukhari and other sources, that this specific part of the verse was revealed on a Friday, the Day of Arafah, during the Farewell Pilgrimage. A Jewish man said to Umar, “If this verse had been revealed to us, we would have taken that day as a festival.” Umar replied, “I know when and where it was revealed.”

• Location/Context: Mount Arafat, near Makkah.
• Primary Actors: Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), the entire Muslim community on Hajj.
• Function in Narrative: To provide definitive dietary laws and to make the monumental declaration of the completion and perfection of the Islamic faith.
• Evidence Level: High (One of the most precisely dated verses in the Qur’an).

🍖 Verse 5:4-5 — What is Lawful: The Food of the People of the Book & Intermarriage

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the list of prohibitions, these verses clarify what *is* lawful. They were revealed in response to companions asking the Prophet (ﷺ) what was permissible for them to eat. Verse 4 declares that all “good things” (tayyibat) are lawful, and it specifically permits eating what has been caught by trained hunting animals (like dogs or falcons), provided the name of Allah is mentioned over it. Verse 5 then makes two major statements concerning relations with the People of the Book (Jews and Christians). First, it declares that their food (specifically, animals they have slaughtered) is lawful for Muslims, and Muslim food is lawful for them. Second, it permits Muslim men to marry chaste women from among the People of the Book, provided the dowry is given and the marriage is honorable, not illicit.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is social and dietary legislation for a multi-religious society.

• Primary evidence: The opening, “They ask you what has been made lawful for them,” is a clear indication that this is a direct response to a community question. The specificity of the rulings on hunting and intermarriage addresses real-life scenarios.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the permission regarding the food of the People of the Book applies to meat they slaughter according to their own religious rites, as they are also forbidden from eating blood and carrion. The permission for marriage is understood by consensus to apply only to Muslim men marrying Christian or Jewish women, not the other way around, due to the principle that the children would follow the religion of the father who, as a Muslim, is required to honor Jesus and Moses.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: To clarify lawful foods and to provide key rulings on social integration with the People of the Book through shared meals and intermarriage.
• Evidence Level: High.

💧 Verse 5:6 — The Verse of Wudu: A Charter for Purity

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, Expedition of Banu al-Mustaliq (c. 5-6 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This single, long verse is the primary scriptural basis for the acts of ritual purification in Islam. It begins, “O you who have believed, when you rise to [perform] prayer, wash your faces and your forearms to the elbows and wipe over your heads and wash your feet to the ankles.” This is the definitive command for Wudu (ablution). It then states that if one is in a state of major impurity (junub), they must perform a full bath (Ghusl). Finally, it repeats the ruling on Tayammum (dry ablution) that was first mentioned in Surah An-Nisa, for situations where water is unavailable or harmful to use. The verse concludes by stating the purpose of these rituals: “Allah does not intend to make difficulty for you, but He intends to purify you and complete His favor upon you that you may be grateful.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is foundational legislation for worship.

• Primary evidence: The detailed, prescriptive nature of the verse marks it as definitive legislation. The explicit link between purification and prayer establishes its central role in Islamic worship.
• Classical tafsir: As with 4:43, the story of Aisha’s lost necklace is the universally cited context for the Tayammum ruling in this verse. It is a famous event narrated in all major hadith collections that demonstrates how a moment of difficulty for the community led to a permanent, merciful concession from Allah.

• Location/Context: On a military expedition from Madinah.
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, Aisha (RA).
• Function in Narrative: To provide the definitive and comprehensive legal ruling for the ritual purifications of Wudu, Ghusl, and Tayammum.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous event).

⚖️ Verse 5:7-11 — Standing for Justice & Remembering the Foiled Plot

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section contains another one of the Qur’an’s most powerful commands for justice, echoing the one in Surah An-Nisa. Verse 8 commands: “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness.” This was a direct command to the Muslims to be absolutely impartial, even with their sworn enemies, the polytheists of Makkah. The verses then remind the believers of a specific, miraculous favor from Allah: “Remember the favor of Allah upon you when a people determined to stretch forth their hands against you, but He restrained their hands from you.” This refers to an incident where a plot to assassinate the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) was miraculously foiled.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

“O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness.” (Qur’an 5:8)

• Primary evidence: The command not to let hatred of a people lead to injustice is a direct address to the real-world situation of the Muslims’ relationship with their polytheist and other enemies.
• Classical tafsir: The story of the Banu Nadir’s plot to kill the Prophet (ﷺ) by dropping a millstone on his head is cited as the specific context for verse 11. The Prophet (ﷺ) had gone to them to ask for their help in paying blood money, as per their treaty obligations. While he waited, they plotted against him, but he was informed by revelation and left immediately, which led to the subsequent siege and expulsion of the tribe.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), Banu Nadir.
• Function in Narrative: To command absolute justice, even towards enemies, and to remind the believers of Allah’s protection as a basis for their trust and piety.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to specific historical events).

📜 Verse 5:12-14 — The Broken Covenants of The Past: A Warning for the Present

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 5-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section serves as a historical warning to the Muslim community by recounting the failed covenants of the previous nations. Verse 12 begins, “And Allah had already taken a covenant from the Children of Israel…” It mentions the twelve leaders appointed over them and the promise of Allah’s support if they would establish prayer, give zakah, believe in the messengers, and lend Allah a goodly loan. Verse 13 then states the tragic outcome: “But because of their breaking of the covenant, We cursed them and made their hearts hard.” It describes their corruption of the scripture (“they distort words from their proper places”) and their neglect of its teachings. Verse 14 applies the same lesson to the Christians: “And from those who say, ‘We are Christians,’ We took their covenant; but they forgot a portion of that of which they were reminded. So We cast among them animosity and hatred until the Day of Resurrection.”

Referenced Timeline: Ancient History, from the time of Moses through the Christian era.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of the “covenant of the Children of Israel” and “those who say, ‘We are Christians'” is a clear sign that this is a historical-theological argument directed at these communities.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the “hardening of the hearts” is a spiritual disease that prevents a person from accepting truth and being moved by admonition. The “animosity and hatred” among the Christians is seen as a reference to the endless sectarian divisions and theological wars that have characterized much of Christian history (e.g., between Nestorians, Jacobites, and Melkites at the time).

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Children of Israel (historical), Christians (historical).
• Function in Narrative: To serve as a historical warning to the Muslims by recounting the covenant-breaking of previous nations.
• Evidence Level: High (Core Qur’anic theme).

💡 Verse 5:15-19 — The Light of a New Revelation: A Call to the People of the Book

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 5-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Following the critique of their past, this section is a direct and gracious invitation to the People of the Book. It announces the coming of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ): “O People of the Scripture, there has come to you Our Messenger making clear to you much of what you used to conceal of the Scripture and overlooking much.” He is described as “a light from Allah and a clear Book,” a means by which Allah guides those who seek His pleasure to “ways of peace,” leading them “from darkness into the light.” The verses then directly confront the core Christian doctrine of incarnation (“Allah is the Messiah, the son of Mary”) and the Jewish doctrine of being the “sons of God and His beloved.” It refutes both by stressing God’s absolute sovereignty and the created, human nature of all people, including the prophets.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The direct address, “O People of the Scripture,” and the engagement with their specific doctrines (the divinity of Christ, being “sons of God”) clearly mark this as part of the interfaith dialogue in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the Prophet (ﷺ) was “making clear” things like the stoning penalty for adultery, which some Jewish scholars were concealing from their own law, and “overlooking much,” meaning not exposing every single one of their alterations, as a mercy.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The People of the Book (Jews and Christians).
• Function in Narrative: To invite the People of the Book to the final revelation, framing it as a light that clarifies and perfects their own traditions.
• Evidence Level: High.

🏞️ Verse 5:20-26 — The Story of the Holy Land: A Lesson in Cowardice and Conviction

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 5-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The Surah now narrates a pivotal and cautionary tale from the history of the Children of Israel. It recounts the moment when Prophet Moses (Musa, peace be upon him) commanded his people to enter the Holy Land which Allah had decreed for them. The people, however, refused out of fear, saying, “Indeed within it is a people of tyrannical strength, and indeed, we will never enter it until they leave it.” Even when two God-fearing men from among them urged them to trust in Allah and just “enter upon them through the gate,” the people gave their infamous, cowardly reply to Moses: “O Moses, indeed we will never enter it, ever, as long as they are within it. So go, you and your Lord, and fight. Indeed, we are sitting right here.” As a punishment for this blatant disobedience and lack of faith, Allah forbade the Holy Land to them for forty years, during which they would wander aimlessly in the wilderness.

Referenced Timeline: Ancient History (The Exodus, c. 13th Century BCE).

• Primary evidence: The narration of this specific historical failure of the Children of Israel serves as a powerful moral lesson, fitting the Surah’s theme of covenant-breaking.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators identify this story with the events narrated in the biblical books of Numbers and Deuteronomy. They use it to highlight the sin of cowardice and the importance of trusting in Allah’s promise over one’s own perception of the enemy’s strength.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Moses (Musa) and the Children of Israel.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a historical example of the failure that results from cowardice and lack of trust in God, serving as a warning to the Muslim Ummah.
• Evidence Level: High.

🩸 Verse 5:27-32 — Cain & Abel: The First Murder and the Origin of Law

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 5-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Immediately following the story of the Israelites’ refusal to fight, the Surah goes back even further in time to the very first act of violence between humans: the story of the two sons of Adam (traditionally known as Cain/Qabil and Abel/Habil). It narrates how both offered a sacrifice, but it was accepted from only one (Abel). Out of envy, Cain threatened to kill his brother. Abel’s noble reply is recorded: “Indeed, Allah only accepts from the righteous. If you should raise your hand against me to kill me – I shall not raise my hand against you to kill you. Indeed, I fear Allah, Lord of the worlds.” Despite this, Cain murdered his brother. Filled with remorse and unsure what to do with the body, he saw a crow burying another crow, and from this, he learned to bury his brother. Verse 32 draws a direct legal and moral lesson from this story: “Because of that, We decreed upon the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul… it is as if he had slain mankind entirely.”

Referenced Timeline: Primordial Time (The generation after Adam).

• Primary evidence: The explicit link “Because of that…” (Min ajli thalik) shows that the story is not just a narrative, but the direct cause and justification for the legal principle that follows.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators emphasize that Abel’s refusal to fight back was a personal choice in a situation where no law had yet been established. It is not, they clarify, a universal prohibition on self-defense, which is permitted in Islamic law. The story’s main purpose is to diagnose the root of violence and to establish the sanctity of human life.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The two sons of Adam.
• Function in Narrative: To trace the origin of murder to envy and to provide the foundational moral basis for the absolute sanctity of human life in law.
• Evidence Level: High.

⚖️ Verse 5:33-34 — The War on Society: Defining & Punishing Hirabah

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, c. 7 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse establishes the severe criminal penalty for a specific crime known as *Hirabah*: waging war against Allah and His Messenger and spreading corruption in the land. This refers to crimes that terrorize society, such as highway robbery, banditry, and terrorism. The verse prescribes a severe, disjunctive punishment, giving the judge a choice based on the severity of the crime: “execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land.” This severe penalty reflects the gravity of a crime that threatens the security of the entire community. Verse 34 then provides a crucial exception: the punishment is waived for those who repent *before* they are captured by the authorities. This keeps the door of repentance open, even for the worst of criminals.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is major criminal legislation.

• Primary evidence: The extreme severity of the punishments listed is a clear indication that it is meant for crimes that go far beyond simple theft, corresponding to the concept of crimes against society.
• Classical tafsir: The story of the men from Uraynah is the universally cited context for this verse in all major hadith and tafsir collections. It provides the concrete, historical event that necessitated this severe piece of legislation to ensure the security of the trade routes and the safety of the community.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The men from the tribe of Uraynah, the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).
• Function in Narrative: To establish the specific crime and the severe punishment for acts of terrorism, highway robbery, and spreading corruption in the land (*Hirabah*).
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous event).

🪜 Verse 5:35-40 — The Path to Closeness & The Law of Theft

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, c. 7-8 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the severe warnings, this section returns to a positive exhortation. Verse 35 commands the believers to have *Taqwa* (God-consciousness), to “seek the means of approach (al-wasilah) to Him,” and to strive in His cause. This is the formula for success. The verses then contrast this with the fate of the disbelievers, stating that even if they had everything on earth twice over to offer as ransom from the punishment of the Day of Judgment, it would not be accepted. Then, verse 38 lays down the specific punishment for theft (*sariqah*): “And [as for] the male thief and the female thief, cut off their hands as a recompense for what they committed as a deterrent from Allah.” Like the previous criminal law, verse 39 immediately follows with the door of repentance: whoever repents after their crime and reforms, Allah will accept their repentance.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a mix of spiritual guidance and criminal law.

• Primary evidence: The establishment of criminal penalties (*hudud*) was a key feature of the late Madinan period as the state consolidated its authority.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that “seek the means of approach” means to draw near to Allah through acts of worship and obedience. The law of theft is understood within a specific legal framework established by the Sunnah, which requires a minimum value of the stolen item (*nisab*) and that it was taken from a secure location (*hirz*), thus preventing the punishment from being applied for petty theft.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide spiritual guidance on drawing near to God and to establish the definitive legal punishment for theft.
• Evidence Level: High.

⚖️ Verse 5:41-47 — The Prophet as Judge & The Light of the Torah and Gospel

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 4-7 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section addresses the Prophet’s (ﷺ) role as a judge, particularly when the Jewish tribes of Madinah would bring their cases to him. Verse 41 consoles the Prophet not to be grieved by those who “hasten into disbelief,” including the hypocrites and the Jews who are described as “listeners to falsehood.” The specific context for these verses was a case of adultery among the Jews. Their own scripture, the Torah, prescribed stoning (*rajm*) as the punishment. However, they had grown lax and wanted to avoid this severe penalty. They decided to bring the case to the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), thinking he might give a lighter sentence. If he did, they would accept it; if not, they would reject it. The Prophet (ﷺ), by divine guidance, asked them to bring the Torah. When they tried to conceal the verse of stoning, a learned convert, Abdullah ibn Salam, exposed their deception. The Prophet (ﷺ) then ordered that the law of the Torah be applied to them. The verses command the Prophet: “And if they come to you, judge between them or turn away from them… But if you judge, judge between them with justice.” It then praises the Torah as containing “guidance and light” and the Gospel (Injeel) similarly, establishing the principle that the People of the Book should be judged by their own scriptures.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The specific details of judging by the Torah and the mention of stoning are direct references to the well-documented legal case brought before the Prophet (ﷺ).
• Classical tafsir: The story of the Jewish couple who committed adultery is the universally cited *sabab al-nuzul* for this entire section. It is narrated in detail in the collections of Bukhari, Muslim, and Abu Dawood, including the detail of the rabbi trying to cover the verse of stoning with his hand.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Jewish leaders, Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), Abdullah ibn Salam.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the Prophet’s (ﷺ) authority as a judge and to lay down the principle of judging the People of the Book by their own scriptures.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous legal case).

📖 Verse 5:48-50 — The Final Word: The Qur’an as the Ultimate Criterion

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-to-Late Madinan (c. 5-7 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After affirming the divine origin of the Torah and the Gospel, this section establishes the supremacy and finality of the Qur’an. Verse 48 is a powerful declaration addressed to the Prophet (ﷺ): “And We have revealed to you the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion (muhayminan) over it.” It commands him to judge between them by what Allah has revealed and not to follow their desires. The verse also contains a profound statement about religious diversity: “To each of you We prescribed a law and a method. Had Allah willed, He would have made you one nation [united in religion], but [He intended] to test you in what He has given you; so race to [all that is] good.” The passage concludes by questioning the desire for the “judgment of ignorance” (hukm al-jahiliyyah), asking, “And who is better than Allah in judgment for a people who are certain [in faith]?”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

“And We have revealed to you the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion over it.” (Qur’an 5:48)

• Primary evidence: The explicit definition of the Qur’an as *muhaymin* over previous scriptures is a definitive theological statement about its role and status.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas explained that *muhayminan* means “a trustworthy guardian” over the books before it. The Qur’an is the ultimate witness to their original truth. Al-Tabari explains the verse on diversity as a divine plan to test people’s obedience within the specific legal framework they were given, with the ultimate goal for all being righteous conduct.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the Qur’an as the final and ultimate legal and theological authority, and to provide a framework for understanding religious diversity.
• Evidence Level: High (Core theological doctrine).

🛡️ Verse 5:51-56 — A Clear Line of Allegiance: The Danger of Taking False Allies

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan, Post-Uhud (c. 3-4 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section contains a famous and critical ruling on political allegiance (*wala’*). Verse 51 commands: “O you who have believed, do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are [in fact] allies of one another.” It warns that whoever takes them as allies becomes one of them. This was revealed in the tense political climate of Madinah, where the hypocrites and some weak-hearted Muslims were trying to maintain secret alliances with the hostile Jewish tribes and other external powers, hedging their bets in case the Muslims were defeated. The verses describe the hypocrites as “hastening to them,” making excuses like, “We fear a turn of fortune will strike us.” The Qur’an counters this with the promise of God’s ultimate victory, which will leave the hypocrites full of regret for their secret plotting.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The discussion of “allies” (*awliya’*) and the fear of a “turn of fortune” are direct references to the political and military realities of Madinah, where alliances were the primary form of security.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators are clear that this verse does not forbid kindness or just dealings with peaceful non-Muslims. Rather, it forbids taking those who are actively hostile to Islam as intimate protectors and strategic allies in a way that compromises the security and loyalty of the Muslim community. The story of Ubadah and Abdullah ibn Ubayy is the key historical context.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The believers, the hypocrites, and hostile non-Muslim groups.
• Function in Narrative: To establish a clear and firm policy on political and military allegiance, forbidding strategic alliances with groups hostile to Islam.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to specific post-Uhud political dynamics).

😆 Verse 5:57-63 — The Mockers of the Call & The Sin of the Rabbis

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section continues the theme of allegiance, specifically forbidding alliances with those who mock the religion. Verse 57 prohibits taking as allies “those who take your religion in ridicule and amusement,” whether from the People of the Book or the polytheists. It describes how, when the call to prayer (Adhan) is made, they take it as a joke. The reason for this behavior, the verse diagnoses, is that “they are a people who do not use reason.” The verses then turn to a sharp critique of the People of the Book, describing their haste to sin, their consumption of what is unlawful (like bribes), and—most damningly—the failure of their rabbis and scholars to forbid them from their sinful speech and actions. This silence of the religious leadership is condemned as an evil act in itself.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of mocking the call to prayer is a detail that roots the verse in the daily life and interactions of Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators narrate that when the Muezzin would call the Adhan, some of the Jews would laugh and mock it. This verse was a direct response. The condemnation of the silent rabbis is seen as a timeless warning to all religious scholars about the sin of failing to speak out against injustice and sin within their own communities.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Mocking non-Muslims, Jewish rabbis and scholars.
• Function in Narrative: To forbid alliances with those who mock Islam and to condemn religious leaders who are silent in the face of their community’s sins.
• Evidence Level: High.

🔗 Verse 5:64-68 — The Chained Hand of God & The Call to Uphold the Scripture

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section refutes another blasphemous statement made by some of the Jews and calls them to return to their own scriptures. Verse 64 quotes their saying: “The hand of Allah is chained.” This was a metaphorical expression of extreme stinginess, implying that God was being miserly and not providing for them. The Qur’an’s response is swift and powerful: “Chained are their own hands, and cursed are they for what they say. Rather, both His hands are extended; He spends as He wills.” The verse then describes how the revelation sent down to the Prophet (ﷺ) only increases many of them in rebellion and disbelief. It then makes a final, powerful plea: “Say, ‘O People of the Scripture, you are upon nothing until you uphold [the law of] the Torah and the Gospel and what has been revealed to you from your Lord.'”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The specificity of the blasphemous quote (“The hand of Allah is chained”) points to a real statement being made in the polemical environment of Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas said this statement was made by a Jewish man named Finhas (the same one mentioned in 3:181). He was mocking the Islamic call for charity (“lending to Allah”) by implying God was poor. This verse was a direct and furious rebuttal to his blasphemy.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Certain Jewish individuals, the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: To refute a blasphemous statement about God and to make a final call to the People of the Book to be true to their own revelations as a path to the final truth.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to a specific individual and statement).

📣 Verse 5:67-71 — The Burden of the Message & Divine Protection

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, The Farewell Pilgrimage (10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is a powerful and crucial verse of reassurance for the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). It commands him: “O Messenger, announce that which has been revealed to you from your Lord. And if you do not, then you have not conveyed His message.” This is a command for complete and fearless transmission of the divine message, holding nothing back. It is immediately followed by a promise of absolute divine protection: “And Allah will protect you from the people.” The subsequent verses return to the theme of the People of the Book, reiterating that they are on no true footing until they uphold their scriptures and condemning their history of killing their prophets.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah/Makkah.

• Primary evidence: The tone of finality and the absolute nature of the command and promise suggest a late-period revelation, when the mission was nearing its completion.
• Classical tafsir: Aisha (RA) is reported to have said that the Prophet (ﷺ) used to have guards until this verse was revealed, after which he told them to leave, saying, “Allah has protected me.” This provides a direct, practical consequence of the verse’s revelation, linking it to the end of his life when the message was complete. (Tirmidhi)

• Location/Context: Makkah/Madinah, near the end of the Prophet’s life.
• Primary Actors: Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).
• Function in Narrative: To issue a final, absolute command to the Prophet to deliver the entire message and to give him an absolute guarantee of divine protection.
• Evidence Level: High.

✝️ Verse 5:72-77 — Confronting Exaggeration: The True Nature of the Messiah

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, Post-Najran Delegation (c. 9-10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section contains one of the Qur’an’s most direct and forceful refutations of the Christian doctrine of Jesus’s divinity. Verse 72 states, “They have certainly disbelieved who say, ‘Allah is the Messiah, the son of Mary.'” It then quotes the Messiah’s own words: “O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord.” It declares that whoever commits Shirk, Allah has forbidden Paradise to him. Verse 73 refutes the Trinity: “They have certainly disbelieved who say, ‘Allah is the third of three.'” The verses then emphasize the humanity of Jesus and his mother: “The Messiah, son of Mary, was not but a messenger… And his mother was a supporter of truth. They both used to eat food.” The final point is a powerful appeal to common sense: if they needed to eat food, they were mortal, created beings, and therefore could not be God. The passage concludes by commanding the Prophet (ﷺ) to tell the People of the Book not to “exaggerate in your religion.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, addressing Christian theology.

• Primary evidence: The explicit refutation of the doctrines of Incarnation (“Allah is the Messiah”) and the Trinity (“Allah is the third of three”) are clear indications that these verses are addressed to Christians.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the argument from “eating food” is a powerful one because needing sustenance is a sign of dependency, whereas God is the Self-Sufficient (Al-Ghani). Therefore, anyone who needs to eat cannot be God. This simple, logical argument was a key part of the Islamic da’wah to Christians.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Christians.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a definitive and logical refutation of the core Christian doctrines of Jesus’s divinity and the Trinity.
• Evidence Level: High.

📜 Verse 5:78-86 — The Curse & The Closer Kin: Assessing Jews & Christians

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 7-9 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section provides a comparative assessment of the general attitudes of the Jewish and Christian communities towards the Muslims. Verse 78 begins by stating that the disbelievers among the Children of Israel were “cursed by the tongue of David and of Jesus, the son of Mary,” because they disobeyed and used to transgress. Their great sin is identified: “They used not to forbid one another from the evil which they committed.” The Surah then makes a famous comparative statement in verse 82: “You will surely find the most intense of the people in animosity toward the believers [to be] the Jews and those who associate others with Allah; and you will find the nearest of them in affection to the believers [to be] those who say, ‘We are Christians.'” It explains that this is because among the Christians are priests and monks, and they are not arrogant. It describes their emotional reaction to hearing the Qur’an: their eyes overflow with tears as they recognize the truth. The passage refers specifically to the welcome and protection a group of early Muslims received from the Christian king of Abyssinia (the Negus).

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, and the early Meccan period (The Hijrah to Abyssinia).

• Primary evidence: The explicit comparison between the attitudes of “the Jews” and “those who say, ‘We are Christians'” is a direct commentary on the socio-political landscape the Muslims were navigating.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators are unanimous that the praise for the Christians in this verse refers specifically to groups like the delegation from Abyssinia, who recognized the truth of Islam, and not to all Christians at all times. The verse about the curse is a timeless warning about the societal decay that results from a failure to forbid evil.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Jewish and Christian communities.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a comparative analysis of the general attitudes of Jews and Christians towards Islam, based on historical experience.
• Evidence Level: High (Reflects documented historical interactions).

⚖️ Verse 5:87-89 — Forbidden Extremes & The Law of Oaths

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 7 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section deals with the prohibition of religious extremism and provides the legal ruling for breaking oaths. Verse 87 commands: “O you who have believed, do not prohibit the good things which Allah has made lawful for you, and do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors.” This was revealed after a group of companions, including figures like Uthman ibn Maz’un, decided to take extreme ascetic vows. They resolved to fast perpetually, pray all night, give up sleeping with their wives, and even considered castration, in order to dedicate themselves completely to worship. The Prophet (ﷺ) firmly forbade this, saying, “I am the most fearful of Allah among you, yet I fast and I break my fast, I pray and I sleep, and I marry women. So whoever turns away from my Sunnah is not of me.” Verse 89 then lays out the law for oaths: Allah does not hold you accountable for unintentional oaths, but for deliberate ones. The expiation (*kaffarah*) for breaking a deliberate oath is to feed ten needy people, or to clothe them, or to free a slave. If one is unable to do any of these, then they must fast for three days.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The prohibition of “prohibiting the good things” is a direct response to the specific ascetic vows taken by the companions.
• Classical tafsir: The story of Uthman ibn Maz’un and his friends is the universally cited *sabab al-nuzul* for verse 87. It is a famous incident narrated in Bukhari, Muslim, and other collections, and it is a cornerstone for the Islamic rejection of monasticism.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A group of ascetic companions, Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).
• Function in Narrative: To forbid religious extremism and self-prohibition of lawful things, and to provide the definitive legal ruling for expiating broken oaths.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous event).

🍷 Verse 5:90-93 — The Final Prohibition: Intoxicants, Gambling, and the Work of Satan

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 8 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the fourth and final stage in the prohibition of alcohol and gambling in the Qur’an. It is the absolute and definitive ban. Verse 90 declares: “O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants (khamr), gambling (maysir), [sacrificing on] stone alters (ansab), and divining arrows (azlam) are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.” Verse 91 explains the reason: “Satan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. So will you not then desist?” Upon the revelation of this verse, the Muslims of Madinah immediately responded, pouring whatever wine they had into the streets until the streets flowed with it. Verse 93 provides a comfort for those who had consumed it before the prohibition, stating there is no sin on them as long as they now fear Allah and do good.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: This verse contains the strongest and most comprehensive prohibition of alcohol and gambling in the Qur’an, marking it as the final stage of the legislation.
• Classical tafsir: Anas ibn Malik, who used to serve wine before the prohibition, narrates the famous story of how he was serving a group of companions when someone came and announced the revelation of this verse. He says they immediately told him to pour it all out, and he did so. This eyewitness account captures the historic moment perfectly.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To issue the final, absolute, and definitive prohibition of intoxicants, gambling, and other pagan practices.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a famous, mass-response event).

🦌 Verse 5:94-96 — The Test of the Hunt: Rulings for the State of Ihram

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, The Year of Hudaybiyyah (6 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section provides detailed laws concerning hunting for a person in the state of ritual consecration for pilgrimage (Ihram). Verse 94 announces that Allah will test the believers while they are in Ihram with game that is easily within reach of their hands and lances, to see who fears Him in the unseen. Verse 95 then lays down the law: “O you who have believed, do not kill game while you are in the state of ihram.” It prescribes the penalty for doing so intentionally: an offering of a domestic animal equivalent to the one killed, to be judged by two just men and brought to the Kaaba, or an expiation of feeding the poor, or the equivalent of that in fasting. Verse 96 then makes a clear distinction: “Lawful to you is game from the sea and its food,” but “forbidden to you is game from the land as long as you are in the state of ihram.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, specifically during a journey for Umrah.

• Primary evidence: The explicit topic of hunting while in Ihram is directly related to the state of pilgrimage. The description of a “test” with abundant game matches the historical reports from the journey to Hudaybiyyah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators are unanimous that this was revealed at Hudaybiyyah. They describe how the wild animals were so unafraid of the pilgrims in their state of Ihram that they would come right into their camp, tempting them in a way they had never experienced before.

• Location/Context: On the road to Makkah (at Hudaybiyyah).
• Primary Actors: The Muslims traveling for Umrah.
• Function in Narrative: To provide the definitive legal rulings for hunting while in the state of Ihram for Hajj or Umrah.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, well-documented event).

❓ Verse 5:101-104 — The Danger of Excessive Questioning & The Trap of Tradition

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan, The Farewell Pilgrimage (10 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section provides crucial guidance on the proper etiquette of seeking knowledge and a critique of blind adherence to tradition. Verse 101 warns: “O you who have believed, do not ask about things which, if they are shown to you, will distress you.” It clarifies that if they ask about them while the Qur’an is being revealed, they will be made clear, but it’s better to avoid questions that could lead to unnecessary hardship. This was revealed when, after the Prophet (ﷺ) announced that Hajj was an obligation, a man repeatedly asked, “Is it every year, O Messenger of Allah?” The Prophet (ﷺ) remained silent, but then said, “If I had said yes, it would have become obligatory, and you would not have been able to do it.” The verses then condemn the pre-Islamic practice of superstitiously dedicating certain livestock to idols (naming practices like *Bahirah*, *Sa’ibah*, etc.) and criticizes those who, when called to Allah’s revelation, say, “Sufficient for us is that upon which we found our fathers.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah/Makkah.

• Primary evidence: The specific prohibition of asking certain types of questions is directly linked in Hadith to the incident during the Prophet’s sermon on Hajj.
• Classical tafsir: The story of the man asking about Hajj every year is the famous *sabab al-nuzul* for verse 101. Commentators explain that the verse discourages two types of questions: those about hypothetical legal rulings that could create new obligations, and those seeking to uncover the hidden faults of others.

• Location/Context: Makkah, during the Farewell Pilgrimage.
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, a man asking a question.
• Function in Narrative: To prohibit asking questions that could lead to unnecessary religious hardship and to condemn blind adherence to ancestral traditions.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous event).

✍️ Verse 5:105-108 — Your Own Soul & The Law of Testimony in a Will

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 9-10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section begins with a powerful verse on individual responsibility: “O you who have believed, upon you is [responsibility for] yourselves. Those who have gone astray will not harm you when you have been guided.” This is not a call to abandon da’wah, but a consolation that after one has done their duty of enjoining good, they are not responsible for another’s choice to remain astray. The verses then lay out a specific and detailed legal ruling concerning testimony for a will made while traveling. If a Muslim is on a journey and death approaches, he should have two just Muslims as witnesses. If Muslims are not available, then two non-Muslims can act as witnesses. If, later, the heirs suspect the non-Muslim witnesses of deceit, the two heirs who have the primary claim can swear an oath that their testimony is truer than the witnesses’, and their oath will be accepted. This complex procedure was designed to protect inheritance while accommodating the realities of travel in a multi-religious world.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a mix of spiritual guidance and detailed law.

• Primary evidence: The highly specific and unusual nature of the legal case described (testimony for a will during travel involving non-Muslims) strongly suggests it was revealed to solve a real, complex problem.
• Classical tafsir: The story of the man who died on a journey and whose will was partially concealed by his two Christian traveling companions is the specific *sabab al-nuzul* cited by commentators for verses 106-108.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A specific Muslim family and their legal case.
• Function in Narrative: To emphasize personal accountability and to provide a detailed legal ruling for witnessing a will during travel, especially involving non-Muslims.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific legal case).

🎤 Verse 5:109 — Judgment Day: The Questioning of the Messengers

Estimated placement in timeline: Very Late Madinan (c. 10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The Surah now makes its final, dramatic shift to the Day of Judgment. This section sets a scene of awe and trepidation. It describes the day when Allah will gather all the messengers and ask them, “What was the response you received?” In their humility and awe, they will reply, “We have no knowledge. Indeed, it is You who is the Knower of the unseen.” This humbling exchange, where even the greatest of prophets defer all knowledge to Allah, serves as a powerful prelude to the detailed questioning of the final messenger to the Children of Israel, Jesus son of Mary.

Referenced Timeline: Eschatological Time (The Day of Judgment).

• Primary evidence: The explicit description of the Day of Judgment and the gathering of the messengers is a clear thematic marker of an eschatological passage.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the messengers’ reply, “We have no knowledge,” is not a denial of what they witnessed in the world, but a statement of humility in the face of Allah’s perfect knowledge. They know the outward response of their people, but only Allah knows their true, hidden inner states.

• Location/Context: N/A (Revealed in Madinah)
• Primary Actors: Allah (SWT) and all the divine Messengers.
• Function in Narrative: To set the stage for the final judgment by describing the awesome questioning of the messengers, thereby emphasizing the ultimate accountability of all humanity.
• Evidence Level: High (Core theological description).

✨ Verse 5:110-115 — The Miracles of Jesus & The Story of the Table Spread

Estimated placement in timeline: Very Late Madinan (c. 10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The scene on the Day of Judgment now focuses on one messenger: Jesus (Isa), son of Mary. Allah will ask him to recall His favors upon him and his mother: being strengthened with the Holy Spirit, speaking to people in the cradle and as a man, being taught the Scripture and wisdom, and his magnificent miracles—creating the form of a bird from clay and breathing life into it, healing the blind and the leper, and raising the dead, all by Allah’s permission. The narrative then transitions to the specific story that gives the Surah its name. The disciples of Jesus ask him, “O Jesus, Son of Mary, can your Lord send down to us a table spread [with food] from heaven?” Jesus initially cautions them to fear Allah. They reply that they only want to eat from it to reassure their hearts and to know for certain that he has told them the truth. Jesus then prays to Allah for this miracle, asking for it to be a festival (‘eid) for them and a sign. Allah agrees to send it down but with a stern warning: whoever disbelieves after this will be punished with a punishment like no other.

Referenced Timeline: 1st Century CE (The ministry of Jesus) and the Day of Judgment.

“O Jesus, Son of Mary, can your Lord send down to us a table spread [with food] from heaven?” (Qur’an 5:112)

• Primary evidence: The detailed dialogue between Jesus, his disciples, and Allah is a unique Qur’anic narrative that provides the Surah’s namesake and a final lesson on faith.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators differ on whether the table was actually sent down or if the warning from Allah was sufficient to make them withdraw their request. The majority opinion is that it was sent down. The story serves as a powerful allegory for the Qur’an itself—a divine feast of knowledge and guidance sent down from heaven, which becomes a source of celebration for the believers and a proof against the disbelievers.

• Location/Context: N/A (Revealed in Madinah)
• Primary Actors: Allah (SWT), Jesus (Isa), the Disciples.
• Function in Narrative: To recount the miracles of Jesus and to tell the story of the table spread as a final lesson on the responsibility that comes with receiving divine signs.
• Evidence Level: High (Core Qur’anic narrative).

🗣️ Verse 5:116-120 — The Final Testimony: Jesus’s Declaration of Innocence

Estimated placement in timeline: Very Late Madinan (c. 10 AH) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The Surah, and the Qur’anic narrative of Jesus, culminates in this final, dramatic courtroom scene on the Day of Judgment. Allah will ask Jesus directly: “O Jesus, Son of Mary, did you say to the people, ‘Take me and my mother as deities besides Allah’?” Jesus’s response is one of perfect, eloquent submission and exoneration. He will say, “Exalted are You! It was not for me to say that to which I have no right… I said not to them except what You commanded me – to worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. And I was a witness over them as long as I was among them; but when You took me up, You were the Observer over them.” He concludes by placing all judgment in Allah’s hands: “If You should punish them – indeed they are Your servants; and if You should forgive them – indeed it is You who is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.” The Surah concludes with Allah’s final verdict: this is the Day when the truthful will benefit from their truth, and they will have gardens beneath which rivers flow, abiding therein forever.

Referenced Timeline: Eschatological Time (The Day of Judgment).

• Primary evidence: This eschatological dialogue is the theological bookend to the entire Surah, providing a final, ultimate judgment on the theme of covenant-keeping and doctrinal purity.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators marvel at the perfection of Jesus’s reply. He shows perfect submission, knowledge, and humility. His final words, “If You punish them… if You forgive them…,” are seen as the pinnacle of adab (etiquette) with Allah, acknowledging that he has no say in the final judgment and that Allah’s decision, whatever it may be, is rooted in His perfect might and wisdom.

• Location/Context: N/A (Revealed in Madinah)
• Primary Actors: Allah (SWT), Jesus (Isa).
• Function in Narrative: To provide the final, decisive testimony of Jesus on the Day of Judgment, in which he will disavow the doctrines of his deification and affirm his message of pure monotheism, thus concluding the Surah.
• Evidence Level: High (Core theological narrative).