🌱 Verse 4:1 — The Unbreakable Bond: A Call to Our Shared Origin

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This majestic opening verse serves as the grand preamble to the detailed social legislation that follows. Revealed in Madinah after the Battle of Uhud, the Muslim community was facing a crisis. The loss of 70 men had created a large number of vulnerable widows and orphans. Before diving into the specific laws governing their care, this verse establishes the foundational principle upon which all social justice in Islam rests: the unity of humankind. It reminds everyone—men and women, guardians and orphans, the strong and the weak—that they all originate from a single soul (Adam) and his mate (Eve). This reminder of a shared origin is a powerful call to empathy, urging the community to fulfill their duties to one another, especially their kinship ties (al-arham).

Referenced Timeline: Primordial Time: The Creation of Adam and Eve. It uses the story of humanity’s beginning to frame a contemporary social and legal challenge in 7th-century Madinah.

“O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.” (Qur’an 4:1)

• Primary evidence: The thematic placement of this verse as the foundation for the laws concerning orphans and women that immediately follow is a strong internal clue. Social legislation in the Qur’an is almost always preceded by a call to Taqwa and a reminder of Allah’s oversight.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir highlights that this verse commands the honoring of kinship ties to emphasize the importance of compassion between relatives. He connects this directly to the subsequent verses about orphans, who are often the most vulnerable relatives in a family structure.

• Location/Context: Madinah, addressing the post-Uhud social situation.
• Primary Actors: All of humanity, with a specific focus on the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Establishes the theological basis for all the social laws in the Surah: our shared humanity.
• Evidence Level: High (Strong thematic consensus).

⚖️ Verse 4:2-4 — The Orphan’s Wealth & The Woman’s Dowry: A Financial Revolution

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses are a direct legislative response to the crisis of orphans after Uhud. In pre-Islamic Arabia, guardians often abused their position, consuming the wealth of the orphans under their care. Verse 2 issues a stern and direct command: “And give to the orphans their property.” It forbids guardians from substituting the orphan’s good property for their own bad property or mixing it with their own to consume it. This was a grave sin. Verse 3 then addresses a related issue: a guardian might be tempted to marry his beautiful and wealthy female orphan ward to seize her property, without giving her a proper dowry (mahr). The verse offers a solution: if a guardian fears he cannot be just to the orphan girls, he should marry other women he finds suitable—”two or three or four.” But if he fears he cannot be just even among them, then he should marry only one. Verse 4 seals the financial rights of women by commanding that the dowry be given to them as a free gift, not to their fathers or guardians.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. These are direct legal rulings for the community.

“And give to the orphans their property and do not substitute the defective for the good, and do not consume their property into your own. Indeed, that is ever a great sin.” (Qur’an 4:2)

• Primary evidence: The Sira is clear that the large number of orphans after Uhud created an urgent need for legislation. The companions were reportedly hesitant to even handle orphans’ property for fear of sinning, requiring this clear guidance.
• Classical tafsir: Aisha (RA) explained that verse 3 was revealed concerning a guardian who has a wealthy and beautiful orphan girl under his care. He wants to marry her but does not want to give her a fair dowry equal to what another man would give her. He is forbidden from doing so and is told to marry other women instead. This specific context from the Prophet’s (ﷺ) wife is the key to understanding the verse. (Sahih al-Bukhari)

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Guardians of orphans, the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the first set of concrete laws protecting the financial rights of orphans and women.
• Evidence Level: High (Directly linked to the post-Uhud crisis and specific explanations in Hadith).

🧠 Verse 4:5-6 — The Test of Maturity: Guardianship as a Sacred Trust

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Continuing the detailed legislation on orphan care, these verses provide further practical guidance for guardians. Verse 5 instructs guardians not to hand over property to orphans who are “weak in intellect” (sufaha’), meaning those who are not yet mature enough to manage their finances responsibly. Instead, the guardian should use the property to provide for the orphan’s food, clothing, and to speak to them kindly. Verse 6 establishes the clear exit criteria for this guardianship: “And test the orphans [in their abilities] until they reach marriageable age. Then if you perceive in them sound judgment (rushd), release their property to them.” It also provides ethical guidelines for the guardian himself: if the guardian is wealthy, he should abstain from taking any compensation. If he is poor, he may take a reasonable fee. Finally, it commands that when the property is handed over, it should be done in the presence of witnesses.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a continuation of the legal code for orphan care.

• Primary evidence: These verses are a logical and necessary continuation of the legal framework started in verse 2. The practical details provided (testing, witnesses, compensation) show that this is a direct response to real-world questions the community was facing.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari explains that “testing” the orphan could involve giving them a small amount of money to manage or sending them on a simple business transaction to see how they handle it. He emphasizes that the goal is to confirm their ability to protect their own assets before handing over their entire inheritance.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Guardians and orphans.
• Function in Narrative: To provide detailed practical and ethical guidelines for managing and eventually releasing an orphan’s property.
• Evidence Level: High.

🚺 Verse 4:7-10 — The Female Share: Revolutionizing Inheritance

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section introduces one of the most revolutionary principles of Islamic law. Verse 7 declares a general rule: “For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, whether it is little or much – an obligatory share.” This was a radical departure from pre-Islamic Arab custom, where inheritance was almost exclusively for the adult male relatives who could fight and defend the tribe. Women, children, and the infirm were typically excluded. Verses 8-9 add a layer of compassion, instructing that if other relatives, orphans, or the needy are present during the division of inheritance, they should be given something and spoken to kindly. Verse 10 concludes with a terrifying warning to those who consume orphans’ property unjustly: “Indeed, those who devour the property of orphans unjustly are only consuming into their bellies fire. And they will be burned in a Blaze.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a foundational legal ruling.

“For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share… an obligatory share.” (Qur’an 4:7)

• Primary evidence: The specific case of the family of Sa’d ibn al-Rabi’ provides a direct historical anchor for the revelation of the detailed inheritance laws that follow.
• Classical tafsir: Tafsir al-Jalalayn and Ibn Kathir both narrate the story of the wife of Sa’d ibn al-Rabi’. They explain that verse 7 was revealed as a general principle, and the subsequent verses (11-12) provided the specific fixed amounts, in direct response to her plea for justice for her daughters.

• Location/Context: Madinah, in response to a specific case post-Uhud.
• Primary Actors: The family of Sa’d ibn al-Rabi’, the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the revolutionary principle that women have a legal, obligatory right to inheritance.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, well-documented event).

🔢 Verse 4:11-12 — The Divine Calculus: Fixed Shares of Inheritance

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After establishing the principle of female inheritance, these two verses, known as the core of *’Ilm al-Fara’id* (the science of inheritance), lay out the specific, fixed shares for the primary heirs. Verse 11 details the shares of children and parents: the son receives twice the share of the daughter; if there are only daughters, they collectively receive two-thirds; if only one daughter, she gets half. The parents each get one-sixth if the deceased has children. Verse 12 details the shares of spouses and siblings: the husband gets half if there are no children, a quarter if there are; the wife gets a quarter if there are no children, an eighth if there are. It also introduces the shares for siblings in the case of *kalalah* (when the deceased has no parents or children). These laws are presented as a direct commandment from Allah, following the payment of any debts and bequests.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is the heart of the new Islamic legal code for inheritance.

• Primary evidence: The extreme specificity and detail of these laws indicate they were revealed to solve a complex and recurring problem for which general principles were insufficient. This points directly to the post-Uhud social context.
• Classical tafsir: These verses are known as *Ayat al-Mawarith* (The Verses of Inheritance). Jabir ibn Abdullah reported that he fell ill and the Prophet (ﷺ) visited him. He asked the Prophet (ﷺ) how he should distribute his property as he only had sisters, and this verse (specifically the rules of *kalalah* at the end of v. 12 and in v. 176) was revealed. This shows the laws came down in response to real questions from the companions.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community seeking guidance on inheritance.
• Function in Narrative: To provide the specific, unalterable shares of inheritance for the main heirs, creating a just system of wealth distribution.
• Evidence Level: High.

🚧 Verse 4:13-14 — The Divine Limits: Paradise and Hellfire as Consequences

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, post-Uhud, c. 3 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Immediately following the detailed and complex laws of inheritance, these two verses frame the entire preceding legislation within an eschatological context. They serve as the ultimate enforcement mechanism. Verse 13 describes the reward for obedience: “These are the limits [set by] Allah.” Whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger (ﷺ) by implementing these laws will be admitted to gardens under which rivers flow, abiding therein forever. That is the great attainment. Verse 14 delivers the dire warning for disobedience: “And whoever disobeys Allah and His Messenger and transgresses His limits – He will put him into the Fire to abide eternally therein, and he will have a humiliating punishment.”

Referenced Timeline: The Eschatological Future (The Day of Judgment and the Hereafter).

• Primary evidence: The placement of these verses directly after the highly specific inheritance laws is a clear structural choice. They serve as the concluding seal and warning for that entire legal section.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Qurtubi explains that “transgressing His limits” here refers specifically to altering the divinely-fixed shares of inheritance, for example, by giving a son more than his share or depriving a daughter of hers. He emphasizes that God calls this disobedience to Himself *and* His Messenger, highlighting the gravity of the sin.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The entire Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide the ultimate motivation—the promise of Paradise and the threat of Hell—for adhering to the divine laws of inheritance.
• Evidence Level: High.

♀️ Verse 4:15-18 — Sexual Misconduct & The Door of Repentance

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: Medium (70%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section presents early Islamic legislation concerning sexual immorality. Verse 15 addresses female lewdness (al-fahishah), requiring four witnesses and prescribing a punishment of confinement to their homes until death or until “Allah ordains for them another way.” Verse 16 addresses the same crime committed by a pair (“the two among you”), prescribing a punishment of harm or public reproach (aathoohooma). However, it immediately states that if they repent and reform, they should be left alone. These verses are understood by the vast majority of scholars to be an early, provisional ruling that was later abrogated (superseded) by the definitive punishment for adultery (zina) laid out in Surah An-Nur (24:2), which is flogging. Verses 17-18 then clarify the conditions for acceptable repentance: it is for those who do wrong out of ignorance and repent soon after. It is not for those who persist in sin until death or who die as disbelievers.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. These are early legal rulings.

• Primary evidence: The phrase “until Allah ordains for them another way” is a strong internal textual clue that this ruling was temporary and expected to be updated by a future revelation.
• Classical tafsir: There is a strong consensus among classical commentators, based on a hadith from Ubadah ibn al-Samit, that these verses were the initial ruling on zina. The hadith states that the Prophet (ﷺ) said, “Receive the legislation from me! Allah has ordained a way for them: the unmarried person with an unmarried person receive one hundred lashes and exile for a year, and the married person with a married person receive one hundred lashes and stoning.” This hadith clarifies that the “other way” promised in verse 15 was indeed revealed, abrogating the earlier punishment of confinement.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide initial legislation for dealing with sexual immorality, while signaling its provisional nature and clarifying the conditions of repentance.
• Evidence Level: Medium (High consensus on abrogation, but the specific events are general).

💔 Verse 4:19-21 — The Forced Inheritance of Women: A Jahili Practice Abolished

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section abolishes several unjust pre-Islamic practices related to marriage and divorce. Verse 19 directly prohibits the practice of “inheriting women against their will.” In the Jahiliyyah period, when a man died, his male relatives (like his son from another wife, or his brother) had a right to his widow. They could marry her without a dowry, prevent her from remarrying until she paid a ransom, or marry her off to someone else and take her dowry. This verse abolishes this practice, treating the woman as chattel. It also forbids men from pressuring their wives to give back part of their dowry unless they have committed clear immorality. Finally, it commands men to “live with them in kindness,” stating that even if they dislike something in their wives, “perhaps Allah will place therein much good.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a direct abolition of an existing unjust custom.

“O you who have believed, it is not lawful for you to inherit women by compulsion. Nor should you constrain them to obtain part of what you have given them, unless they commit a clear immorality.” (Qur’an 4:19)

• Primary evidence: The direct prohibition of “inheriting women” points to a specific, known cultural practice that Islam sought to abolish.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Al-Bukhari narrate the specific context. In one case, a man named Abu Qays ibn al-Aslat died, and his son wanted to “inherit” his stepmother, as was the custom. She went to the Prophet (ﷺ), and this verse was revealed, giving her freedom and agency.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Widows in the early Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To abolish the pre-Islamic custom of treating widows as part of the deceased’s estate and to establish a new standard of kindness in marriage.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to specific pre-Islamic customs and revelation events).

⛔ Verse 4:22-25 — The Prohibited Degrees: Defining Lawful Marriage

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section lays out the permanent categories of women whom a man is forbidden to marry (mahram). The list is comprehensive and establishes the sacred boundaries of family relationships. Verse 22 begins by explicitly forbidding marriage to one’s stepmother (“women whom your fathers married”), calling it a shameful and evil practice. Verses 23-24 then list the other prohibited degrees, including mothers, daughters, sisters, aunts, nieces, foster-mothers and foster-sisters, mothers-in-law, step-daughters, and daughters-in-law. It also forbids being married to two sisters at the same time. After listing these prohibitions, the Surah declares that all other women are lawful, provided the marriage is sought with a proper dowry. Verse 25 addresses the specific situation of a man who cannot afford to marry a free believing woman, permitting him to marry a believing slave-girl, while stressing the importance of her owner’s permission and a proper dowry.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is foundational family law.

• Primary evidence: The establishment of clear family law was essential for the creation of a stable and moral society in Madinah. These detailed prohibitions are a core component of that legal foundation.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the prohibition of marrying one’s stepmother was a direct repudiation of a practice known as *Maqt* (“hateful marriage”) in the Jahiliyyah. They also note that the verse about marrying slave-girls was a practical solution that prevented men from falling into zina due to poverty, while simultaneously providing a path for the integration and potential freedom of the slave-girl and her children.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To definitively establish the prohibited degrees of marriage, thereby defining the sacred boundaries of the family.
• Evidence Level: High.

💡 Verse 4:26-33 — Divine Wisdom, Human Weakness, and Mutual Consent

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the detailed legal rulings, this section explains the divine purpose behind them. Verse 26 states that Allah desires “to make clear to you… and to guide you” and to accept your repentance. It’s a statement of legislative mercy. Verse 27 contrasts Allah’s desire for the believers’ purity with the desire of “those who follow passions,” who wish for the believers to deviate entirely. Verse 28 contains a profound statement of compassion: “And Allah wants to lighten your burden, and mankind was created weak.” This explains why the laws, though firm, are also pragmatic and merciful. The verses then shift back to law, forbidding the believers from consuming each other’s property unjustly, except through “trade by mutual consent.” It concludes by affirming the inheritance principles laid out earlier and the concept of appointed shares for all.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

“Allah wants to lighten your burden, and mankind was created weak.” (Qur’an 4:28)

• Primary evidence: The explicit statements about Allah’s “desire” for the believers provide a clear commentary on the purpose of the preceding legal verses.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that “mankind was created weak” refers specifically to man’s weakness in the face of the temptations of women, which is why Allah has provided the merciful outlet of lawful marriage, including the permission to marry slave-girls for those who cannot afford free women. This connects the verse directly to the pragmatic nature of the preceding family law.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To explain the divine wisdom and mercy behind the legislation, acknowledging human weakness and establishing core principles for economic interaction.
• Evidence Level: High.

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Verse 4:34-35 — Marital Roles, Discord, and Reconciliation

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is one of the most commented-upon verses in the Qur’an regarding marital relations. Verse 34 establishes the man as the *qawwam* (maintainer, protector, supporter) of the woman, a role based on what Allah has “given one over the other” and on the man’s financial responsibility. It describes the righteous woman as devoutly obedient and one who guards the unseen (her chastity and the husband’s property) which Allah has guarded. It then outlines a three-step process for a husband to follow in the case of a wife’s *nushuz* (ill-conduct, rebellion, or severe discord): first, admonish her; then, (if that fails) separate from her in bed; and finally, (as a last resort) *wadriboohunna* (a term interpreted variously as to strike lightly, to separate, or to leave). Verse 35 then provides the mechanism for when the conflict escalates to a “breach” between the couple: an arbiter should be appointed from his family and an arbiter from hers. If both arbiters desire reconciliation, Allah will bring them together.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is direct family law and dispute resolution guidance.

• Primary evidence: The specific, sequential guidance for resolving marital discord points to its function as practical law for the community.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Al-Tabari narrate the story of the wife of Sa’d ibn al-Rabi’ as the direct context. They also extensively discuss the meaning of *wadriboohunna*, with the vast majority, supported by the Prophet’s (ﷺ) own example and hadith, stipulating that if it is resorted to at all, it must be light, not on the face, and not causing injury—a symbolic act of last resort before the matter becomes public through arbitration. The Prophet (ﷺ) himself never struck a woman or a servant.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslim husbands and wives.
• Function in Narrative: To outline the roles and responsibilities within a marriage and to provide a clear, step-by-step process for resolving serious marital conflict.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to a specific case).

🤝 Verse 4:36-42 — The Blueprint for a Compassionate Society

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 3-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This single verse (4:36) is a masterpiece that outlines the entire structure of social responsibility in Islam. It begins with the foundation: “Worship Allah and associate nothing with Him.” It then radiates outwards in circles of responsibility: kindness to parents, then to relatives, then to orphans, then to the needy. It then expands to neighbors, both near (relatives or literal neighbors) and far (non-relatives or those farther away). It includes “the companion at your side” (which could mean a spouse, a friend, or a travel partner), the “wayfarer” (traveler in need), and “those whom your right hands possess” (slaves). The verse concludes by stating that Allah does not love the arrogant and boastful. The subsequent verses warn against the stingy, those who show off, and those who disbelieve, painting a picture of their regret on the Day of Judgment.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a foundational ethical charter.

• Primary evidence: This verse’s comprehensive nature and its placement after detailed family law suggest its role as a summary of the broader social ethics that underpin the specific legislation.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas and other companions considered this verse to be one of the most comprehensive in the Qur’an regarding social ethics. Commentators like Ibn Kathir go through each category, explaining its scope. For example, the rights of the neighbor are so emphasized that they cite the hadith where the Prophet (ﷺ) said, “Gabriel kept advising me about the neighbor until I thought he would be made an heir.”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The entire Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a complete and foundational charter of social and ethical responsibilities in Islam.
• Evidence Level: High.

💧 Verse 4:43 — Approaching Prayer: The Prohibition of Intoxication & The Mercy of Tayammum

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse contains two important legal rulings, both related to the state of purity required for prayer. The first part is the second step in the gradual prohibition of alcohol. “O you who have believed, do not approach prayer while you are intoxicated until you know what you are saying.” This was revealed after an incident where a companion, in a state of intoxication, led a prayer and misrecited Surah Al-Kafirun, completely distorting its meaning. This verse didn’t ban alcohol outright but made it practically impossible for a practicing Muslim to drink, as it would interfere with the five daily prayers. The final, absolute prohibition would come later in Surah Al-Ma’idah (5:90). The second part of the verse introduces the merciful concession of *tayammum* (dry ablution). It instructs that if a person is ill or traveling, or has no access to water, they can purify themselves for prayer by using clean earth. This was revealed during a journey when the army had stopped and Aisha’s (RA) necklace was lost. The search delayed them until morning, and they had no water for Fajr prayer. The companions were distressed, and this verse was revealed, providing a solution.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Two distinct events led to this compound verse.

• Primary evidence: The specific command not to pray while intoxicated is a clear legislative step. The details of the Tayammum ruling are directly tied to the well-known hadith about Aisha’s lost necklace.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari and others narrate that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the companion who misrecited the prayer after a meal where wine was served, prompting the first part of this verse. For the second part, all major Sira and Tafsir works narrate the story of the lost necklace during the expedition of Banu al-Mustaliq as the direct context for the legislation of Tayammum.

• Location/Context: Madinah / On a military expedition.
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, a companion who erred, Aisha (RA).
• Function in Narrative: To provide two key rulings on purity for prayer: the interim prohibition of praying while intoxicated and the concession of dry ablution (Tayammum).
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to two specific, well-documented events).

📖 Verse 4:44-50 — Twisting the Word & The Arrogance of Self-Praise

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section returns to the theme of the People of the Book, specifically some of the Jewish scholars in Madinah who were actively opposing the Prophet (ﷺ). The verses describe them as having “taken a portion of the Scripture, but they purchase error [in exchange for it] and wish you would lose the way.” It accuses them of “distorting words from their [proper] usages” and of using ambiguous phrases to insult the Prophet (ﷺ), such as saying *Ra’ina* (which could mean “hear us” but with a slight twist sounds like “our evil one”) instead of the respectful *Unthurna* (“look upon us”). The passage then condemns their arrogance and self-praise, asking, “Have you not seen those who claim themselves to be pure?” It refutes this, stating that it is Allah who purifies whom He wills. The warning culminates in a condemnation of the greatest lie: inventing falsehoods about God.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This describes the verbal and intellectual sparring between the Muslims and some Jewish tribes.

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of the phrase *Ra’ina* is a direct link to a real-world linguistic issue that occurred in Madinah, as also mentioned in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:104).
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the Jews would use this double-entendre to subtly mock the Prophet (ﷺ). The Qur’an commanded the believers to stop using the ambiguous term and to use a clear and respectful one instead, thus cutting off this avenue of mockery. The verses on self-praise are said to be a critique of their claim to be God’s “chosen people” in a way that implied impunity.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Certain Jewish scholars, the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To expose the intellectual dishonesty and spiritual arrogance of some of the Prophet’s opponents.
• Evidence Level: High.

👹 Verse 4:51-57 — The Great Betrayal: Preferring Idols over God

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, Post-Uhud, c. 3-4 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This powerful passage condemns a specific and shocking act of treason by some Jewish leaders from Madinah. After the Battle of Uhud, leaders like Huyayy ibn Akhtab and Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf went to the Quraysh in Makkah to form an alliance against the Muslims. To win the favor of the polytheist Quraysh, the Makkans asked them, “You are People of the Book. Tell us, is our religion [of idol worship] better, or is Muhammad’s religion [of monotheism] better?” In a stunning act of betrayal of their own monotheistic heritage, these Jewish leaders replied, “Your religion is better than his.” They praised the idols and declared the idolaters to be better guided than the believers. This verse refers to them as those who “believe in *Jibt* and *Taghut* (superstition and false objects of worship)” and condemns them as being cursed by Allah. The verses then warn of the terrible fate awaiting such people in the Hellfire.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a direct commentary on a specific political and theological betrayal.

“Have you not seen those who were given a portion of the Scripture? They believe in superstition and false objects of worship and say about the disbelievers, ‘These are better guided than the believers.'” (Qur’an 4:51)

• Primary evidence: The specific details of praising the idolaters and forming an alliance with the Quraysh against the Muslims are documented historical events that took place after Uhud.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir, Al-Tabari, and all major Sira writers narrate this event in detail as the direct *sabab al-nuzul* for this verse. They name the individuals involved (like Huyayy ibn Akhtab) and describe their visit to Makkah and their prostration before the Qurayshi idols to seal the alliance.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Jewish leaders of Banu Nadir, the Quraysh of Makkah.
• Function in Narrative: To condemn a specific and grave act of political and theological betrayal that had severe consequences.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, major historical event).

🔑 Verse 4:58-59 — The Twin Pillars of Society: Trusts and Judgement

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, The Year of the Conquest of Makkah (8 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section contains two foundational principles for a just society. Verse 58 commands the believers: “Indeed, Allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due; and when you judge between people, to judge with justice.” This is a universal principle, but it was revealed at a very specific, powerful moment. On the day the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) conquered Makkah, he took the key to the Kaaba from its traditional keeper, Uthman ibn Talha. The Prophet’s (ﷺ) uncle, Al-Abbas, asked for the key to be given to him. Instead of keeping it himself or giving it to his own family, the Prophet (ﷺ) recited this verse and returned the key to Uthman ibn Talha, the man from the family that had held it for generations, even though he was not yet a Muslim at that very moment. Verse 59 then builds on this, establishing the ultimate hierarchy of authority: “O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary event (The Conquest of Makkah, 8 AH).

• Primary evidence: The Sira accounts of the Conquest of Makkah are unanimous in linking the revelation or recitation of this verse to the specific event of the key of the Kaaba.
• Classical tafsir: All major tafsirs and historical sources narrate the story of Uthman ibn Talha and the key. They highlight the Prophet’s (ﷺ) action as the quintessential example of fulfilling a trust, setting a precedent for all Muslim rulers to come.

• Location/Context: Makkah, at the time of its conquest.
• Primary Actors: Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), Uthman ibn Talha, Al-Abbas.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the foundational principles of justice—fulfilling trusts and judging fairly—and to define the hierarchy of authority in Islam.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, iconic historical event).

⚖️ Verse 4:60-65 — The False Arbitrator: Seeking Judgment from Taghut

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses address the hypocrites (munafiqun) who claimed to be believers but refused to accept the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) as the ultimate judge in their disputes. The verse expresses astonishment at those who “claim they believe in what has been revealed to you… yet they wish to go for judgment to *Taghut* (false judges/idols/anything worshipped other than Allah), while they were commanded to disbelieve in it.” The *sabab al-nuzul* concerns a dispute between a Jew and a hypocrite. The Jew, knowing the Prophet (ﷺ) was just, wanted him to be the judge. The hypocrite, knowing the Prophet (ﷺ) would rule against him, wanted to go to a pre-Islamic arbiter or a Jewish leader known for taking bribes, like Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf. When they are called to what Allah has revealed, the hypocrites turn away completely. The verses then state that true faith is incomplete until the believers “make you, [O Muhammad], judge concerning that over which they dispute among themselves and then find within themselves no discomfort from what you have judged and submit in [full, willing] submission.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This deals with a specific legal and spiritual challenge posed by the hypocrites.

• Primary evidence: The specific scenario of choosing a different arbiter over the Prophet (ﷺ) was a known issue with the hypocrites in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators narrate the story of the dispute between the Jew and the hypocrite. In one version, after the Prophet (ﷺ) ruled in the Jew’s favor, the hypocrite was still not satisfied and wanted to go to Umar ibn al-Khattab. When Umar heard that the man had rejected the Prophet’s (ﷺ) judgment, he struck him down, demonstrating the gravity of this rejection. Verse 65 was then revealed.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The hypocrites, Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).
• Function in Narrative: To establish the absolute authority of the Prophet’s judgment as a necessary condition of faith and to condemn “judge-shopping” as an act of disbelief.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to specific incidents).

⚔️ Verse 4:66-73 — The Reluctant Warrior & The True Meaning of Obedience

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section continues to explore the mindset of the hypocrites, particularly in the context of sacrifice and fighting. The verses posit a hypothetical: if the command had been to “kill yourselves” or “leave your homes,” very few would have done it. This highlights their unwillingness to make real sacrifices. The verses then pivot to describe the immense reward for true obedience: being in the company of the prophets, the truthful, the martyrs, and the righteous in the hereafter. This was revealed after some companions expressed their sadness that their station in Paradise would be far below the Prophet’s (ﷺ), and they would not be able to see him. This verse was a consolation, promising that sincere obedience leads to companionship with the best of creation. The Surah then turns back to the hypocrites, describing their behavior when the call to fight comes. Some of them deliberately lag behind, and if the Muslims are victorious, they wish they had been there to get a share of the booty. But if the Muslims suffer a setback, they say with relief, “Allah has favored me in that I was not present with them.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, in the context of military expeditions.

• Primary evidence: The themes of fighting, sacrifice, booty, and hypocrisy are all hallmarks of the Madinan period and the challenges of building a state in a hostile environment.
• Classical tafsir: The *sabab al-nuzul* for verse 69 is reported to be a companion (or several) who came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and expressed this specific sadness about being separated from him in Jannah. The verse was revealed as a direct comfort and reassurance to them.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The sincere believers and the hypocrites.
• Function in Narrative: To contrast the hypocrisy of those who avoid sacrifice with the sincere love and obedience of the believers, and to provide a powerful spiritual incentive for that obedience.
• Evidence Level: High.

✈️ Verse 4:74-76 — Fighting for the Oppressed: The Cause of the Weak

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses provide a powerful moral and spiritual justification for warfare in Islam. Verse 74 encourages the believers to “fight in the cause of Allah,” defining them as those who sell the life of this world for the Hereafter. Verse 75 then asks a powerful rhetorical question: “And what is [the matter] with you that you fight not in the cause of Allah and [for] the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, ‘Our Lord, take us out of this city whose people are oppressors and appoint for us from Yourself a protector and appoint for us from Yourself a helper’?” This refers to the believers who were still trapped in Makkah, facing persecution from the Quraysh. Verse 76 draws the ultimate distinction: “Those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve fight in the cause of Taghut (tyranny, falsehood). So fight against the allies of Satan. Indeed, the plot of Satan is ever weak.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah and Makkah. It addresses the plight of the Muslims still in Makkah.

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of the “oppressed among men, women, and children” and their prayer to be taken out of “this city” is a clear reference to the persecuted Muslims in Makkah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir explain that “this city” is Makkah. They note that this verse was a powerful motivator for the believers, reminding them of their duty towards their brethren who were still suffering under the tyranny of the Quraysh.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim army, the oppressed Muslims in Makkah.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a powerful ethical justification for fighting: the liberation of the oppressed, and to frame the conflict as a struggle between the cause of God and the cause of tyranny.
• Evidence Level: High.

✋ Verse 4:77-81 — From Restraint to Action: The Hypocrites’ Fear of Death

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section describes the shifting attitudes of some people, particularly the hypocrites, towards fighting. It refers to a time in Makkah when the persecuted believers were eager to fight back but were commanded by God to “restrain your hands” and focus on prayer and charity. Now, in Madinah, when fighting is prescribed for them, a group among them “fear men as they fear Allah or with even greater fear.” They complain, “Our Lord, why have You decreed upon us fighting? If only You would delay it for us for a short term.” The Qur’an rebukes this attitude, reminding them that the enjoyment of this world is little, and the Hereafter is better. It states the futility of their fear: “Wherever you may be, death will overtake you, even if you should be within towers of lofty construction.” The verses then describe their blame-shifting attitude and their outward obedience but inward plotting.

Referenced Timeline: The Meccan period (the command to restrain) and Contemporary Madinah (the command to fight).

• Primary evidence: The explicit contrast between the past command to “restrain your hands” and the present prescription of fighting is a clear reference to the two distinct phases of the Prophet’s (ﷺ) mission: Makkah and Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that in Makkah, several companions, being beaten and abused, would come to the Prophet (ﷺ) asking for permission to retaliate, but he would tell them to be patient as he had not been commanded to fight. This verse refers back to that period to highlight the hypocrisy of those who now feared the very thing they once claimed to desire.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The hypocrites and weak-hearted.
• Function in Narrative: To expose the hypocrisy of those who fear fighting after once claiming to desire it, and to teach the futility of fearing death.
• Evidence Level: High.

🤔 Verse 4:82-84 — The Unchanging Word & The Dangers of Rumor

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section offers a powerful argument for the divine origin of the Qur’an and a sharp critique of how the hypocrites handle sensitive information. Verse 82 issues a direct intellectual challenge: “Then do they not reflect upon the Qur’an? If it had been from any other than Allah, they would have found within it much contradiction.” This is an appeal to the text’s own internal consistency as proof of its divinity. Verse 83 then addresses a serious problem in Madinah: when a rumor concerning security or fear reached the hypocrites, they would immediately broadcast it. The verse rebukes this behavior, stating that they should have referred the matter to the Messenger (ﷺ) and “those in authority,” who would have known how to analyze it properly. It is a call for information discipline in a time of war. The section concludes with an exhortation to the Prophet (ﷺ) to fight on, even if he is alone, and to encourage the believers.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

“Then do they not reflect upon the Qur’an? If it had been from any other than Allah, they would have found within it much contradiction.” (Qur’an 4:82)

• Primary evidence: The call to reflect on the Qur’an’s consistency is a classic Qur’anic argument. The specific problem of spreading rumors about security and fear was a documented problem in the tense atmosphere of Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the hypocrites would hear news from the Muslim patrols (saraya) and would immediately spread it among the people before the Prophet (ﷺ) could make an official and strategic announcement, often causing unnecessary fear or revealing Muslim movements to the enemy. This verse came to forbid this.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The hypocrites, the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide proof of the Qur’an’s divine origin and to establish a clear protocol for handling sensitive information and rumors.
• Evidence Level: High.

🕊️ Verse 4:85-91 — Intercession, Greetings, and Categories of Hypocrites

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section covers several topics related to social interaction and dealing with different groups. Verse 85 establishes the principle of intercession: whoever intercedes for a good cause will have a share in its reward, and whoever intercedes for an evil cause will bear a share of its burden. Verse 86 then gives a specific rule of etiquette: “And when you are greeted with a greeting, greet [in return] with one better than it or [at least] return it [in a like manner].” This fostered a culture of goodwill. The verses then return to the hypocrites, questioning why the believers are divided into two factions concerning them. It urges a unified stance, stating that they should not be taken as allies. It then lays out a clear policy for dealing with them: if they neither withdraw from the conflict, nor offer peace, nor restrain their hands, then they are to be treated as open enemies. However, it makes a crucial exception for those who are allied with a people with whom the Muslims have a treaty, or those who come with their hearts genuinely reluctant to fight anyone. This established clear rules of engagement.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The specific discussion of being “two groups” about the hypocrites and the detailed rules of engagement point to a real policy debate happening in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators say the believers were divided regarding a group of people from Madinah who had outwardly accepted Islam but refused to emigrate and were found to be helping the enemies. Some believers wanted to give them the benefit of the doubt, while others considered them traitors. These verses resolved the dispute.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The believers and various factions of hypocrites.
• Function in Narrative: To provide guidance on social etiquette and to establish a clear, just, and unified policy for dealing with the different categories of hypocrites and neutral parties.
• Evidence Level: High.

🩸 Verse 4:92-93 — The Sanctity of Life: Rulings on Unintentional & Intentional Killing

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, Post-Hudaybiyyah, c. 6-7 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These two verses lay down the definitive Islamic law on homicide. Verse 92 deals with unintentional killing (manslaughter). It states that it is not for a believer to kill another believer, except by mistake. It then prescribes the expiation (*kaffarah*): freeing a believing slave and paying blood money (*diyah*) to the deceased’s family, unless they forgo it as charity. The verse details different scenarios, such as if the victim was from a hostile people but was a believer. Verse 93 then addresses the gravest of crimes: intentionally killing a believer. The punishment is not worldly, but otherworldly and severe: “his recompense is Hell, to abide therein eternally, and Allah has become angry with him and has cursed him and has prepared for him a great punishment.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is major criminal legislation.

• Primary evidence: The detailed legal nature of the verses, specifying different scenarios and penalties, shows it is foundational legislation for the state.
• Classical tafsir: As mentioned, the story of Ayyash provides a specific context for verse 92. Regarding verse 93, Ibn Abbas held a very strict view, believing that there was no repentance for a person who intentionally kills a believer, based on the severity of the verse. However, the majority of scholars hold that repentance is possible, but the verse serves to show the immense gravity of the crime.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To establish the definitive Islamic law for both unintentional and intentional killing, highlighting the sanctity of a believer’s life.
• Evidence Level: High (Linked to specific cases and foundational legal needs).

🧐 Verse 4:94 — The Greeting of Peace: A Warning Against Hasty Judgment in War

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 7 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse provides a critical rule of engagement for Muslims on military expeditions. It commands: “O you who have believed, when you go forth [to fight] in the cause of Allah, investigate. And do not say to one who gives you a greeting [of peace], ‘You are not a believer,’ aspiring for the goods of this worldly life.” This was revealed after a specific incident. A group of companions on patrol encountered a man with some sheep who greeted them with the Islamic greeting of “As-salamu alaykum.” Suspecting he was only saying it to save his life and his property, one of the companions killed him and took his sheep. When the news reached the Prophet (ﷺ), he was deeply displeased. This verse came down as a stern rebuke and a clear command to accept a person’s outward profession of peace or faith at face value in a combat situation, as only Allah knows what is truly in the heart.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, during a military patrol.

• Primary evidence: The specificity of the command—”do not say to one who gives you a greeting [of peace], ‘You are not a believer'”—is a direct reference to the type of incident reported in the Sira.
• Classical tafsir: There are several narrations about the specific incident, some mentioning Usama ibn Zayd and others mentioning Muhallim ibn Jaththama. In the famous version with Usama, he killed a man who said “La ilaha illa Allah.” The Prophet (ﷺ) repeatedly asked him, “Did you kill him after he said La ilaha illa Allah? Did you split open his heart to see?” Usama was so filled with remorse that he wished he had only become a Muslim on that day. This powerful event is the direct backdrop for this verse.

• Location/Context: On a military expedition from Madinah.
• Primary Actors: A group of companions on patrol.
• Function in Narrative: To establish a critical rule of engagement: accept outward signs of peace and faith in combat and avoid killing for material gain.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a famous and powerful incident).

🚶‍♂️ Verse 4:95-100 — The Striver & The Sitter: Degrees of Faith & The Refuge of Hijrah

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 5-6 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section makes a clear distinction in rank between different types of believers. Verse 95 states: “Not equal are those believers who sit [at home] – other than those with disability – and those who strive in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives.” It clarifies that while both groups are promised good, the strivers (mujahideen) are favored with a greater rank. This was initially revealed without the exception. A blind companion, Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum, came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said, “O Messenger of Allah, if I were able, I would certainly participate in jihad.” The phrase “other than those with disability” was then revealed, showing the divine mercy and fairness. The verses then address the issue of Muslims who remained living among the disbelievers in Makkah and did not perform Hijrah (emigration) to Madinah when they were able to. It describes the angels taking their souls and questioning them, and their final abode being Hell, unless they were genuinely oppressed and unable to emigrate. The passage ends with a great encouragement for Hijrah, promising that whoever emigrates for Allah’s cause will find “in the earth many places of refuge and abundance.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah and Makkah.

• Primary evidence: The specific exception “other than those with disability” and the story of its revelation provide a precise historical context for verse 95. The discussion of Hijrah was a central topic in the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: The story of Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum is the universally cited *sabab al-nuzul* for the exception in verse 95. Regarding Hijrah, commentators explain that this was a strict obligation on Muslims in Makkah before the conquest, as it was impossible to practice Islam freely and fully there, and their presence was needed to defend the new state in Madinah.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum, Muslims remaining in Makkah.
• Function in Narrative: To clarify the different ranks of believers based on their sacrifice and to issue a strong command and warning regarding the obligation of Hijrah.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to specific individuals and the major theme of Hijrah).

🙏 Verse 4:101-104 — Prayer in Times of Fear: The Salah of a Soldier

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 6 AH (during an expedition) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section provides a crucial concession and a practical methodology for performing the obligatory prayer (Salah) during times of travel and danger. Verse 101 gives the permission to shorten the prayers (qasr) when traveling. Verses 102-103 then detail the procedure for the “Fear Prayer” (Salat al-Khawf). This is a specific formation for when the Muslim army is facing the enemy and fears an attack. The army divides into two groups. One group prays one rak’ah behind the Imam (the Prophet ﷺ) while the other group stands guard. Then, they switch places, with the first group standing guard while the second group comes and prays their rak’ah. This allows the entire army to pray in congregation without ever leaving the battlefield exposed. The verses conclude by reminding the believers to remember Allah even after the prayer and reaffirming that prayer is prescribed for the believers at “decreed specified times.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, during military campaigns.

• Primary evidence: The extreme specificity of the procedure for Salat al-Khawf indicates it was revealed to address a real and recurring need for the Muslim army.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators and hadith collections narrate several instances where the Prophet (ﷺ) led the Fear Prayer. The different narrations describe slight variations in the procedure depending on the specific tactical situation, but they all adhere to the core principles laid out in this verse. The permission to shorten the prayer is also a well-established practice of the Prophet (ﷺ) on any journey.

• Location/Context: On a military expedition from Madinah.
• Primary Actors: The Muslim army.
• Function in Narrative: To provide the legal rulings and practical methodology for shortening the prayer during travel and performing the congregational prayer during battle.
• Evidence Level: High (Directly implemented and narrated in Hadith).

🛡️ Verse 4:105-113 — The Stolen Armor: A Divine Intervention for Justice

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This entire section was revealed in response to a specific and complex legal case in Madinah. A man from a Muslim family, Tu’mah ibn Ubayriq, who was a hypocrite, stole a suit of armor. To hide his crime, he planted the armor in the house of a Jewish man. When the theft was discovered, Tu’mah’s tribe came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and vigorously defended him, trying to frame the Jewish man. They argued so persuasively that the Prophet (ﷺ) was initially inclined to believe them and exonerate the thief. Before he could pass judgment, these verses were revealed. They came down as a direct intervention from Allah, commanding the Prophet (ﷺ): “Indeed, We have revealed to you the Book in truth so you may judge between the people by that which Allah has shown you. And do not be for the deceitful an advocate.” The verses go on to expose the plot, condemn the deceit of Tu’mah and his family, and completely exonerate the innocent Jewish man. It’s a powerful lesson on the absolute impartiality of divine justice.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a divine commentary on an active court case.

“And do not argue on behalf of those who deceive themselves. Indeed, Allah loves not one who is a habitually sinful deceiver. They conceal [their evil] from the people, but they cannot conceal it from Allah…” (Qur’an 4:107-108)

• Primary evidence: The extreme specificity of the details—a deceitful advocate, a plot, a secret sin—points to a real and complex incident rather than a general principle.
• Classical tafsir: This story is one of the most famous and detailed *Asbab al-Nuzul* in the entire Qur’an. It is narrated by Qatadah ibn al-Nu’man, the owner of the stolen armor, and is found in all major Tafsir and Sira works. The details of Tu’mah’s crime, the defense by his tribe Banu Zafar, and the revelation of these verses to correct the course of justice are all well-documented.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Tu’mah ibn Ubayriq (the thief), his tribe, an innocent Jewish man, Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).
• Function in Narrative: To intervene in a specific legal case, establish the principle of absolute justice irrespective of faith, and guide the Prophet’s (ﷺ) judgment.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to a specific, famous, and detailed event).

🗣️ Verse 4:114-115 — Secret Counsel & The Path of Schism

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Following the condemnation of the secret plotting in the case of the stolen armor, these verses clarify the nature of secret conversations (najwa). Verse 114 states that there is “no good in most of their private conversation,” making a general critique of gossip and plotting. However, it immediately provides three exceptions: secret talk is good if it is to enjoin charity, or what is right, or reconciliation between people. Verse 115 then delivers a stern warning against those who oppose the Messenger (ﷺ) after guidance has become clear and who follow a path other than that of the believers. This is a condemnation of schism and apostasy. The verse promises that such a person will be left to their chosen path of error, and their final destination is Hell.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a general social and theological guidance.

• Primary evidence: The thematic link is strong. The previous verses condemned a specific evil plot, and these verses provide the general rule about good and bad plotting.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators directly link verse 115 to the apostasy of Tu’mah ibn Ubayriq after his crime was exposed by the preceding verses. His personal story becomes the archetype for the sin of creating schism.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, with a specific reference to the apostate Tu’mah.
• Function in Narrative: To provide ethical guidelines for private conversations and to issue a stern warning against the sin of schism and apostasy.
• Evidence Level: High (Directly connected to the outcome of the previous incident).

⚖️ Verse 4:116-126 — The Unforgivable Sin & The Deception of Satan

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section addresses the ultimate theological crime: Shirk, the association of partners with Allah. Verse 116 is a definitive statement: “Indeed, Allah does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills.” This establishes a clear hierarchy of sin. The verses then trace the root of shirk back to the deception of Satan. It describes the polytheists as calling upon “female deities” and a “rebellious Satan,” whom Allah has cursed. The Qur’an then quotes Satan’s vow: to take a portion of mankind, to mislead them, to arouse in them false desires, and to command them to do pagan rituals like slitting the ears of cattle and to “change the creation of Allah.” The passage concludes by describing Satan’s promises as pure delusion and by reaffirming that salvation comes only through faith and righteous deeds, not empty hopes—this is the promise of Allah, and who is more truthful than Allah?

Referenced Timeline: The Eschatological Future (divine forgiveness) and Primordial Time (Satan’s vow).

• Primary evidence: The absolute statement on the unforgivability of Shirk is a foundational tenet of Islam, repeated in the Qur’an for emphasis. Its placement here continues the theme of defining the boundaries of true faith.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the “female deities” refers to the pagan Arab goddesses like Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat, whom they worshipped as intermediaries. They interpret “changing the creation of Allah” in various ways, from physical alterations to the body to changing the divinely-ordained laws of what is lawful and unlawful.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: All of humanity, Satan, the polytheists.
• Function in Narrative: To define the ultimate sin of Shirk, to trace its origin to the deception of Satan, and to reaffirm that salvation is only through faith and good deeds.
• Evidence Level: High (Core theological principle).

❓ Verse 4:127-130 — A Question About Women: Further Rulings on Orphans and Marital Discord

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section begins with, “And they request from you, [O Muhammad], a ruling concerning women.” It then refers back to the earlier verses of the Surah, reminding the believers of what has already been recited concerning female orphans “to whom you do not give what is decreed for them, and whom you desire to marry.” This revisits the issue from verse 3, reinforcing the prohibition of marrying an orphan ward without giving her a fair dowry. It also adds the issue of “the oppressed among children,” reinforcing their rights. The passage then returns to the theme of marital discord from verse 35, but this time from the wife’s perspective. Verse 128 addresses the case where a wife fears *nushuz* (ill-conduct, cruelty, or desertion) from her husband. In this situation, it is permissible for them to seek a peaceful settlement (*sulh*), even if it involves the wife giving up some of her rights (e.g., financial or in terms of the husband’s time) to preserve the marriage. The verse concludes that “reconciliation is best.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a clarification and expansion of earlier legislation.

• Primary evidence: The opening phrase “And they request from you a ruling…” is a classic indicator of *Asbab al-Nuzul*, signaling that the verse is a direct answer to a question posed to the Prophet (ﷺ).
• Classical tafsir: Aisha (RA) explained that verse 128 refers to a man who is married to an older woman and wishes to separate from her, but she asks him to stay with her in marriage while she forgoes some of her rights. This verse permits such a mutually agreed-upon settlement.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, Sawdah bint Zam’ah.
• Function in Narrative: To clarify and reinforce laws about female orphans and to provide a mechanism for marital reconciliation from the wife’s perspective.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to specific questions and events).

🌍 Verse 4:131-136 — The Call to Steadfast Justice & True Belief

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section contains some of the most powerful calls to justice and faith in the Qur’an. It begins by reminding humanity of God’s absolute sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Then comes the monumental command in verse 135: “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one is rich or poor, Allah is more worthy of both.” This establishes the absolute and impartial nature of justice in Islam. The verse warns against following personal inclination, lest one swerve from justice. Verse 136 then follows with an equally powerful command regarding faith: “O you who have believed, believe in Allah and His Messenger and the Book that He sent down upon His Messenger and the Scripture which He sent down before.” This is a call for believers to deepen their faith, to make it comprehensive, and to avoid the partial or selective belief that leads to disbelief.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

“O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives.” (Qur’an 4:135)

• Primary evidence: These verses contain core, foundational principles that were essential for the moral and legal fabric of the Madinan state.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators emphasize that verse 135 is one of the strongest verses in the Qur’an on the nature of justice. They note that it obligates a believer to speak the truth even if it harms their most beloved relatives, because the right of Allah (truth and justice) takes precedence over all personal ties.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To issue a powerful command to uphold absolute justice, even against oneself, and to call believers to a more complete and sincere state of faith.
• Evidence Level: High.

🔄 Verse 4:137-147 — The Vacillating Hypocrite: A Portrait of Doubt and Deceit

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 4-5 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section provides a sharp and detailed analysis of the psychology and fate of the hypocrites (munafiqun). Verse 137 describes those who “believe, then disbelieve, then believe, then disbelieve, and then increase in disbelief,” a portrait of chronic spiritual instability for whom Allah will not grant forgiveness or guidance. The verses then describe their actions: taking disbelievers as allies instead of believers, mocking the verses of Allah, and waiting to see which side wins a battle so they can join the victors. Verse 142 gives a classic description of their worship: “Indeed, the hypocrites [think to] deceive Allah, but He is deceiving them. And when they stand for prayer, they stand lazily, showing off to the people and not remembering Allah except a little.” The passage concludes by describing them as “wavering between them, [belonging] neither to these nor to those,” and states that they will be in the “lowest depths of the Fire.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The detailed psychological profile of the hypocrites and their behavior in prayer and battle corresponds exactly with the descriptions of the *munafiqun* of Madinah found throughout the Sira.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the hypocrites’ strategy was to maintain ties with both the Muslims and their enemies (the Quraysh and some Jewish tribes) so that they would be safe and benefit regardless of who won the war. The Qur’an condemns this opportunistic, faithless approach to life.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The hypocrites.
• Function in Narrative: To provide a detailed psychological and spiritual analysis of the hypocrites, exposing their methods and warning of their ultimate fate.
• Evidence Level: High.

🗣️ Verse 4:148-152 — Public Speech, Good Deeds, and Comprehensive Faith

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 5-6 AH — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This short section provides guidance on public speech and the nature of belief. Verse 148 states, “Allah does not like the public mention of evil except by one who has been wronged.” This establishes a general principle against publicizing sins, backbiting, and slander, but creates a crucial exception for a victim of injustice seeking redress. This allows for public testimony in court and speaking out against oppression. Verse 149 encourages a higher path: doing good openly or secretly, or pardoning an evil, reminding us that Allah is ever Pardoning and Competent. The section then returns to a core theological point, defining true disbelievers as those who “differentiate between Allah and His messengers,” saying, “We believe in some and disbelieve in others.” True believers, by contrast, are those who believe in all of them without distinction.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: These are general principles that were essential for regulating social interaction and defining theological boundaries in the Madinan community.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that “public mention of evil” includes all forms of verbal abuse and backbiting. The exception for the wronged person is their right to complain to a judge or someone who can help them, and to describe the injustice that was done to them.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: To provide ethical guidelines for public speech and to define the difference between true, comprehensive faith and a selective, partial faith.
• Evidence Level: Medium (General principles rather than a single event).

📜 Verse 4:153-162 — The People of the Book: A History of Rebellion and Rejection

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 5-7 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section presents a long and powerful summary of the historical transgressions of the Children of Israel. It begins with their audacious demand to Prophet Moses (Musa, peace be upon him) to “see Allah outright.” It then lists a series of their major sins: taking the calf for worship, their reluctance to enter the holy land, their repeated breaking of the Sabbath, their rejection of the covenant, their disbelief in God’s signs, their killing of the prophets without right, their slander against Maryam (Mary), and their boastful claim to have killed Jesus (Isa), the Messiah. The passage also mentions their practice of Riba (usury), which had been forbidden to them, and their consumption of people’s wealth unjustly. The section concludes by stating that the righteous and knowledgeable among them, who believe in what was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), will be given a great reward.

Referenced Timeline: Ancient History, from the time of Moses (c. 13th Century BCE) to the time of Jesus (c. 1st Century CE).

• Primary evidence: The specific events listed (the golden calf, the Sabbath-breaking, killing prophets, slandering Mary) are all well-known episodes from the history of the Children of Israel.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators go through each point in this list, often providing cross-references to the stories as they appear in other parts of the Qur’an (like Surahs Al-Baqarah and Al-A’raf). They explain that this litany of sins serves as a warning to the Muslim Ummah not to fall into the same patterns of behavior.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Children of Israel (historical), the Jewish tribes of Madinah (contemporary).
• Function in Narrative: To provide a historical summary of the transgressions of the Children of Israel in order to contextualize their contemporary rejection of Islam.
• Evidence Level: High.

✝️ Verse 4:157-159 — The Crucifixion: Correcting the Narrative

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 5-7 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Nestled within the list of the Children of Israel’s sins is the Qur’an’s most direct and definitive statement on the fate of Jesus (Isa, peace be upon him). The verse quotes their boast: “Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.” The Qur’an immediately and forcefully refutes this: “And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but [another] was made to resemble him to them.” It states that those who differ about it are full of doubt, following nothing but conjecture. The verse then delivers the Islamic creed on the matter: “For certain they did not kill him. Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise.” The passage concludes by stating that every single one of the People of the Book will believe in him before his death, and on the Day of Judgment, he will be a witness against them.

Referenced Timeline: 1st Century CE (The event of the crucifixion) and The Eschatological Future (The return of Jesus).

• Primary evidence: This is the most explicit verse in the Qur’an on the subject of the crucifixion, making it a cornerstone of Islamic theology.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir explain the mainstream Islamic view that someone else was made to look like Jesus, and it was this substitute who was crucified, while Jesus himself was raised to the heavens, from where he will return before the end of time. The final part of the verse is interpreted to mean that everyone will believe in him in the correct way (as a prophet, not God) after his future descent.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Children of Israel, Jesus (Isa).
• Function in Narrative: To state the definitive Islamic creed regarding the crucifixion of Jesus, refuting both Jewish and Christian narratives.
• Evidence Level: High (Core theological doctrine).

✨ Verse 4:163-171 — The Unbroken Chain of Revelation & A Final Call to Christians

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 7-9 AH — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the long critique of the People of the Book, this section places Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) squarely within the same, single chain of revelation as all previous prophets. “Indeed, We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], as We revealed to Noah and the prophets after him.” It then lists a long line of prophets—Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, the Descendants, Jesus, Job, Jonah, Aaron, and Solomon, and mentions David receiving the Psalms (Zabur). This establishes a unified history of divine guidance. The passage then pivots to a direct address to the “People of the Scripture” (specifically Christians), urging them not to “exaggerate” in their religion or say about Allah anything but the truth. It defines Jesus as “a messenger of Allah and His word which He directed to Mary and a soul [created at a command] from Him.” It commands them to believe in Allah and His messengers and “do not say, ‘Three.'” It concludes by stating that Allah is far exalted above having a son.

Referenced Timeline: All of Prophetic History.

• Primary evidence: The long list of prophets and the direct address to the People of the Book about the Trinity are clear signs of a sophisticated, conclusive theological statement.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that this verse is one of the pillars of the Islamic understanding of Jesus. They stress that titles like “Word of Allah” refer to his miraculous creation by the command “Be!” (Kun), not that he is an uncreated part of God. This was the central point of debate with Christian theologians.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), the People of the Scripture (Christians).
• Function in Narrative: To place Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) in the single, continuous chain of revelation and to issue a final, clear call to Christians to return to pure monotheism.
• Evidence Level: High.

👑 Verse 4:172-176 — The True Status of the Messiah & The Final Word on Inheritance

Estimated placement in timeline: Medinan, c. 9-10 AH — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The Surah’s concluding verses provide a final, definitive statement on the nature of Jesus and a final, clarifying piece of inheritance law. Verses 172-173 state that the Messiah would “never disdain to be a servant of Allah, nor would the angels near [to Him].” It reframes servitude to God not as a lowly status, but as the highest honor. The final verse, 176, returns to the topic that dominated the beginning of the Surah: inheritance. It begins, “They request a ruling from you. Say, ‘Allah gives you a ruling concerning the one who has neither ascendants nor descendants (kalalah).'” This verse specifically clarifies the inheritance rules for when a person dies leaving only siblings. It was revealed late in the Prophet’s (ﷺ) life to provide a final, clear answer to a question that had been asked multiple times, completing the legal code of inheritance laid out at the beginning of the Surah.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a final theological clarification and a final legal ruling.

• Primary evidence: The explicit opening “They request a ruling from you” and the specific topic of *kalalah* link verse 176 to a real legal query. Its status as a concluding clarification is well-established.
• Classical tafsir: There is a strong consensus that verse 176 is the last verse of inheritance to be revealed, clarifying the case of siblings where the earlier verse (4:12) had focused on maternal siblings. The hadith of Jabir ibn Abdullah (mentioned under 4:11-12) is also linked to this verse, as his case involved having only sisters. This verse provided the final piece of the puzzle.

• Location/Context: Madinah or on a journey.
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, Umar ibn al-Khattab.
• Function in Narrative: To provide the final statement on the status of Jesus and the final, clarifying ruling on inheritance, thus completing the Surah’s major themes.
• Evidence Level: High (Tied to specific legal questions and considered the final verse on its topic).