Table Of Contents

Comprehensive Glossary & Vocabulary Guide For Surah Nisa

1. ‘Adl (عَدْل) – Justice

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term ‘Adl originates from the three-letter root ع-د-ل (‘Ayn-Dāl-Lām). This root’s core semantic field revolves around the ideas of equality, balance, straightness, and righteousness. To make something ‘adl is to make it equal, to straighten it, or to restore it to its proper, balanced state. Morphologically, ‘Adl is a verbal noun (maṣdar) that signifies the concept of justice itself—not merely as a legal ruling, but as a state of equilibrium and moral rectitude. The root appears dozens of times in the Qur’an, highlighting its central importance.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Classical commentators have understood ‘Adl in this Surah, particularly in the context of polygyny (4:3), not as a demand for perfect emotional equality, which is considered impossible for a human, but as the imperative to provide equal and fair treatment in quantifiable matters like financial support, housing, and time. In the context of judgment (4:58), it is interpreted as rendering decisions with impartiality, free from personal bias, nepotism, or prejudice. It is the unwavering application of divine law and fairness to all, friend or foe.

Thematic Context

Justice is arguably the central operational theme of Surah An-Nisa. The Surah opens with commands for justice towards the most vulnerable—orphans and women—and extends it to fair dealings in inheritance, marital responsibilities, and legal testimony. This specific application of ‘Adl to the family and social unit serves as the bedrock for a just society. The Surah demonstrates that a community’s health is measured by its commitment to justice in its most intimate and foundational relationships.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern Islamic thinkers emphasize ‘Adl as a comprehensive principle of social justice, extending it to political, economic, and human rights spheres. It is seen as a divine mandate to challenge systemic oppression and inequality. Comparatively, the Quranic concept of ‘Adl is holistic, merging the procedural justice of Western legal thought (due process) with the distributive justice focused on fair allocation of resources, and the ethical rectitude found in Judeo-Christian concepts of righteousness. It is both a legal standard and a spiritual virtue.

Practical Reflection & Application

In daily life, practicing ‘Adl means more than just being fair in major disputes. It involves being equitable with one’s time and attention among family members, giving honest and unbiased advice when asked, judging situations based on facts rather than assumptions, and fulfilling one’s responsibilities to employees, employers, and neighbors with integrity and fairness.

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2. ‘Afw (عَفْو) – Pardon / Forgiveness

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word ‘Afw comes from the root ع-ف-و (‘Ayn-Fā’-Wāw). Its core meanings include to efface, to obliterate, or to wipe away. It also means to grow or to increase. Thus, ‘afw is a type of forgiveness that doesn’t just “cover” a sin, but completely erases it from the record as if it never happened. As a divine attribute, Al-‘Afūw (The Pardoner) is One who completely removes sins. The sense of “increase” implies that pardoning others brings about an increase in blessings.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:99), after discussing the difficult situation of those too weak to migrate, the Qur’an offers hope: “For those it is expected that Allah will pardon them (ya‘fuwa), and Allah is ever Pardoning and Forgiving.” Similarly, in 4:149, believers are encouraged to “pardon an evil,” linking this human act to God’s own attribute. Classical exegetes note that ‘afw is a higher level of forgiveness than maghfirah (which means to cover a sin); ‘afw is to completely blot it out.

Thematic Context

The theme of ‘afw is a crucial component of the Surah’s emphasis on divine mercy and interpersonal reconciliation. While the Surah establishes strict laws and justice, it balances this with a constant reminder of God’s immense capacity for forgiveness. It encourages a community culture where members are willing to pardon each other’s faults, promoting healing and harmony over a rigid and unforgiving application of every right.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of a pardoning God is central to the Abrahamic faiths. The Islamic emphasis on ‘afw as an “erasure” is a powerful psychological concept. In modern therapeutic contexts, true forgiveness is often described as letting go of a debt, which “effaces” the wrong. The encouragement for humans to cultivate this divine attribute is a cornerstone of Islamic ethics, framing forgiveness not as a sign of weakness, but as a reflection of divine strength and mercy.

Practical Reflection & Application

We all make mistakes, and others wrong us. The principle of ‘afw encourages us to be easy on others’ faults, to overlook minor slights, and to actively pardon those who have wronged us, especially if they show remorse. Just as we hope for God to completely erase our sins from our record, we should strive to wipe the slate clean with others. This practice frees the heart from the burden of resentment and invites God’s own pardon into our lives.

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3. ‘Ahd (عَهْد) – Covenant / Pledge

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term ‘Ahd stems from the root ع-ه-د (‘Ayn-Hā’-Dāl), which means to entrust, to command, or to make a covenant. An ‘ahd is a solemn pledge, a binding agreement, or a covenant that entails responsibilities and commitments. It signifies a promise that is meant to be kept and for which one will be held accountable.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa (4:33) speaks of those “with whom your right hands have made a pledge,” referring to allies or confederates. While the primary covenant is always with God, the Qur’an gives weight to worldly agreements and pledges. In verse 4:92, concerning accidental killing, the law differs if the victim was from a people with whom the Muslims had a covenant (‘ahd). Classical scholars understood these verses as establishing the absolute sanctity of treaties and agreements, even with non-Muslims. Fulfilling one’s pledges is a sign of true faith.

Thematic Context

The theme of ‘ahd connects to the Surah’s broader vision of a society built on trust, integrity, and the rule of law. The reliability of contracts, treaties, and personal promises is essential for social and political stability. By commanding believers to fulfill their covenants, the Qur’an lays the groundwork for a community that can be trusted in both its internal and external affairs, a society where one’s word is one’s bond.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of the sanctity of covenants (pacta sunt servanda in Latin) is a foundational principle of international law. The Islamic emphasis on ‘ahd provides a powerful, divinely-rooted ethical basis for this principle. In modern business and personal ethics, the idea of integrity and honoring one’s commitments remains a paramount virtue. The Quranic concept elevates this from a pragmatic social good to a matter of divine accountability.

Practical Reflection & Application

Living by the principle of ‘ahd means being a person of your word. It applies to the major contracts we sign and the minor promises we make to our children. It means being reliable, trustworthy, and conscientious in fulfilling all our commitments. Before making a promise or entering an agreement, we should consider whether we can truly fulfill it, because in the sight of God, every covenant is a weighty and sacred trust.

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4. Ahl al-Kitāb (أَهْل الْكِتَاب) – People of the Book

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is a compound phrase. Ahl (أَهْل) comes from the root أ-ه-ل (Alif-Hā’-Lām), which signifies people, family, or inhabitants who share a common space, lineage, or characteristic. Al-Kitāb (الْكِتَاب) comes from the root ك-ت-ب (Kāf-Tā’-Bā’), meaning “to write” or “to prescribe.” Thus, Ahl al-Kitāb literally means “People of the Scripture.” It is a term of respect, identifying religious communities whose traditions are founded upon divinely revealed texts.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In the context of Surah An-Nisa, classical scholars identify the Ahl al-Kitāb primarily as the Jews and Christians. The verses addressing them (e.g., 4:153, 4:171) are seen as both an invitation and a critique. The invitation is to recognize the continuity of revelation culminating in the Qur’an. The critique is directed at specific theological points of divergence, such as the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and claims about the crucifixion, urging them to avoid exaggeration (ghulūw) in their religion.

Thematic Context

The discussions surrounding the Ahl al-Kitāb are central to the Quranic theme of prophetic continuity and monotheistic purity. Surah An-Nisa engages them in theological dialogue, affirming the original revelations given to Moses (Musa) and Jesus (‘Isa) while correcting what it presents as human-introduced alterations or excesses. This theme establishes the universality of God’s message and positions Islam as its final, unadulterated confirmation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern discourse often explores the pluralistic implications of this term. It is seen as a Quranic framework for interfaith dialogue and coexistence. By grouping Jews and Christians under this shared honorific, the Qur’an establishes a basis for mutual respect and legal accommodation within Muslim societies. This concept stands in contrast to secular models of tolerance, as it is based on a shared theological heritage of revelation, prophecy, and monotheism, creating a unique “Abrahamic” ecumenical space.

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding this term encourages a mindset of respectful engagement with people of other faiths, particularly those within the Abrahamic family. It is a call to find common ground in shared values (like justice, compassion, and belief in one God) while engaging in honest and respectful dialogue about differences, rather than resorting to polemics or dismissal.

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5. Ajran ‘Aẓīmā (أَجْرًا عَظِيمًا) – A Great Reward

Linguistic Root & Etymology

Ajran (أَجْرًا) comes from the root أ-ج-ر (Alif-Jīm-Rā’), which means to reward, recompense, or hire for a wage. It implies a just compensation for effort or action. ‘Aẓīmā (عَظِيمًا) derives from the root ع-ظ-م (‘Ayn-Ẓā’-Mīm), denoting greatness, magnificence, and immensity. The combination Ajran ‘Aẓīmā thus means a reward that is not just adequate but is magnificent and overwhelmingly generous, far exceeding the merit of the deed performed.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Classical commentators consistently interpret this phrase, which appears multiple times in Surah An-Nisa (e.g., 4:40, 4:74, 4:95), as referring to the ultimate reward of Paradise (Jannah). It is described as a reward of immeasurable value, encompassing divine pleasure, eternal security, and sensory and spiritual delights beyond human imagination. The greatness of the reward is linked to the greatness of the Giver—God Himself. It is a reward of pure grace, multiplied beyond any simple calculation of deeds.

Thematic Context

This concept is central to the Quranic theme of divine mercy and incentive. Surah An-Nisa lays down numerous commands that require sacrifice—from fighting in God’s cause to being just in inheritance and family matters. The promise of an Ajran ‘Aẓīmā serves as a powerful motivation, framing obedience not as a burdensome duty but as a wise investment with an unparalleled return. It balances the call to worldly struggle with the assurance of otherworldly triumph and compensation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern theological discussions, this concept is explored in relation to motivation and ethics. It raises questions about acting out of pure love for God versus hope for reward. The consensus is that they are not mutually exclusive; hoping for God’s reward is a natural and legitimate expression of faith in His justice and generosity. Comparatively, all Abrahamic faiths have a strong concept of divine reward, but the Quranic emphasis on its “greatness” (‘aẓīm) underscores the sheer scale of God’s magnanimity in Islamic theology.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on the promise of a “great reward” can cultivate a powerful sense of optimism and resilience. When facing difficulties in upholding ethical principles or when good deeds seem to go unnoticed by the world, this concept reminds the believer that the ultimate account is with God, whose recompense is unfailing, just, and boundlessly generous. It encourages perseverance in doing good, irrespective of immediate worldly outcomes.

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6. Amānah (أَمَانَة) – Trust

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Amānah comes from the root أ-م-ن (Alif-Mīm-Nūn). The core meaning of this root is security, safety, and trustworthiness. From this same root, we get the word Īmān (faith), implying that faith itself is a state of feeling secure with God. Amānah is the verbal noun signifying a trust, a deposit, or a responsibility that is placed in someone’s care, with the full expectation that it will be kept safe and returned faithfully.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

When Surah An-Nisa commands believers to “render back your Trusts to those to whom they are due” (4:58), classical exegetes understood this in the most comprehensive sense. It includes not only returning material wealth and property but also fulfilling all responsibilities. This encompasses the ruler’s duty to the people, the judge’s duty to be impartial, and every individual’s duty to uphold their commitments, keep secrets, and perform their roles in society with integrity.

Thematic Context

The concept of Amānah is foundational to the theme of social and political justice in the Surah. The verse immediately following the command to render trusts is about judging with justice, linking trustworthiness with fair governance. This establishes a core principle of Islamic civilization: leadership is not a right of power but a sacred trust (amānah) from God, to be administered for the well-being of the community. The failure to uphold this trust is one of the greatest forms of corruption.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Contemporary Islamic thought extends the concept of Amānah to include the stewardship of the environment, the responsible use of knowledge and technology, and the integrity of public office. It is seen as a powerful ethical framework counteracting corruption and exploitation. Comparatively, while many philosophical systems discuss fiduciary duty or social contracts, the Islamic concept of Amānah is uniquely theocentric. The ultimate accountability is not to the people or the state alone, but to God, making the violation of a trust a spiritual crisis as well as a social crime.

Practical Reflection & Application

We are all entrusted with things daily. Our job is an amānah from our employer. Our children are an amānah from God. The knowledge we possess is an amānah to be used for good. Even our bodies and time are trusts. Living by the principle of Amānah means approaching every role and responsibility in life with a profound sense of accountability, integrity, and a commitment to fulfilling its rights conscientiously.

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7. An-Nisā’ (النِّسَاء) – The Women

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word An-Nisā’ is the plural of imra’ah (woman). Interestingly, it does not derive from a standard three-letter root in the same way as its singular form. Its etymology is linked to the root أ-ن-س (Alif-Nūn-Sīn), which means intimacy, companionship, and familiarity. This connection subtly suggests that the relationship between men and women is meant to be one of sociability and comfort, a theme echoed in other parts of the Qur’an. The Surah is named An-Nisā’ because its opening and many of its key legislative passages are dedicated to their rights and status.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Classical commentators note that the Surah’s title and opening verses represent a profound shift in the status of women from the pre-Islamic era. The detailed legislation regarding their rights in marriage, property ownership, and inheritance was seen as divinely ordained, protecting them from the unjust practices (jahiliyyah) that were previously common. The Surah addresses women directly, giving them legal personality and spiritual standing equal to men.

Thematic Context

The theme of women’s rights and social roles is the most prominent thread weaving through Surah An-Nisa. It is not merely a chapter “about” women; it is a foundational text establishing a just social order by first securing the rights and dignity of its female members. The Surah’s legal rulings on marriage, divorce, and inheritance demonstrate that the stability and piety of the family unit, built on justice towards women, is the cornerstone of the entire Muslim community (ummah).

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern times, Surah An-Nisa is a focal point for discussions on Islam and feminism. Reformist and progressive scholars highlight its revolutionary spirit in granting women legal and economic rights unparalleled in the 7th century. Debates often center on the interpretation of specific verses, like 4:34 (on qawwamun and nushuz), in a contemporary context. Comparatively, while other legal codes of the time treated women as property, this Surah establishes them as independent legal agents with a direct relationship to God and specific, divinely guaranteed rights.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reading this Surah prompts a critical self-assessment of how women are treated in our families and communities today. It calls us to be champions of justice, ensuring that the rights God has granted to women—in inheritance, in marriage, in respectful treatment—are fully honored and not eroded by cultural traditions or patriarchal interpretations that contradict the Surah’s core message of equity and compassion.

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8. Bayān (بَيَان) – A Clear Explanation

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Bayān stems from the root ب-ي-ن (Bā’-Yā’-Nūn), which means to be clear, to be distinct, to be separate. Bayān is the verbal noun meaning a clear explanation, a clarification, or a demonstration that separates truth from falsehood. It signifies a form of communication that removes ambiguity and makes the truth manifest.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While the term itself is not prominent in Surah An-Nisa, the concept is central. The Surah concludes its detailed explanation of the complex kalālah inheritance case with the words, “Allah makes clear to you (yubayyinu-llāhu lakum) lest you go astray” (4:176). Classical commentators see the entire Surah, with its detailed laws and clear moral guidance, as a form of divine bayān. God is not a silent deity but one who communicates His will with clarity and precision so that humanity has no excuse for going astray.

Thematic Context

The concept of bayān is foundational to the Quranic theme of divine guidance and revelation. The Qur’an does not present itself as a book of mysteries, but as a “clear book” (kitāb mubīn). The purpose of revelation is to make the path to righteousness clear and distinct from the path of error. The intricate laws in Surah An-Nisa are a testament to this divine commitment to clarity, providing unambiguous guidance on the most critical aspects of social life.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern Islamic thought, the principle of bayān is often invoked in discussions about the Qur’an’s accessibility. It supports the idea that the core message of the Qur’an is clear and can be understood by any sincere reader, pushing back against the notion that its meaning is only accessible to a clerical elite. This principle of clarity is a cornerstone of the Protestant Reformation in Christianity as well, with its emphasis on sola scriptura and the perspicuity (clarity) of scripture.

Practical Reflection & Application

The divine quality of bayān should inspire us in our own communication. We should strive to be clear, honest, and unambiguous in our speech, especially when giving advice, teaching, or resolving disputes. Just as God makes His guidance clear to us out of mercy, we should strive to be a source of clarity and understanding for others, removing confusion rather than creating it.

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9. Bukhl (بُخْل) – Stinginess / Avarice

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Bukhl comes from the root ب-خ-ل (Bā’-Khā’-Lām). The primary meaning of this root is to be miserly, stingy, or avaricious. It describes the act of withholding one’s wealth or resources from others out of an excessive love for them and a fear of poverty. It is the opposite of generosity (sakha’) and spending in the way of God (infaq). The Qur’an uses it to denote a deep-seated spiritual disease.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In the context of Surah An-Nisa (e.g., 4:37), classical commentators have defined bukhl in two dimensions. The first is withholding wealth—failing to pay obligatory charity (zakat) or help those in need. The second, and often considered worse, is enjoining stinginess upon others. This is the act of not only being a miser but actively encouraging others to be miserly as well. It is also linked to concealing the bounty that God has given, which is seen as a form of ingratitude (kufr).

Thematic Context

Stinginess is presented in the Surah as a characteristic directly opposed to true faith (īmān). It is thematically linked to arrogance (kibr) and showing off (riyā’), as these vices all stem from a similar root: a love of self and wealth over a love of God and others. The Surah warns that those who are stingy are not loved by God and are companions of Satan, establishing a clear moral binary between the generous believer and the avaricious hypocrite.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern Islamic ethics frames bukhl not just in terms of individual charity but also in the context of economic justice. It can be seen as the spiritual basis for economic hoarding, exploitative capitalism, and the failure of wealthy nations to address global poverty. It is the psycho-spiritual root of an unjust economic order. Comparatively, the concept is similar to the sin of “greed” or “avarice” in Christian theology (one of the seven deadly sins), which is also seen as a form of idolatry where wealth takes the place of God.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept encourages us to examine our relationship with money and possessions. Am I generous with my time, knowledge, and wealth? Do I give freely and cheerfully, or with a feeling of reluctance and loss? The practical application is to cultivate a spirit of generosity, trusting that giving does not diminish one’s wealth but purifies it and invites greater blessings from God. It’s about breaking the heart’s attachment to material things.

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10. Burhān (بُرْهَان) – A Conclusive Proof

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Burhān comes from the root ب-ر-ه (Bā’-Rā’-Hā’), which means to prove or to demonstrate. A burhān is not just any evidence; it is a decisive, conclusive, and irrefutable proof. It is a demonstration that establishes the truth with such certainty that it leaves no room for reasonable doubt. It is often associated with rational or demonstrable evidence.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, verse 4:174, the Qur’an makes a powerful declaration: “O mankind, there has come to you a conclusive proof (burhān) from your Lord, and We have sent down to you a clear light (nūran mubīnā).” The classical commentators have identified the burhān here as the Prophet Muhammad himself—his character, his miracles, and the rational coherence of his message—and the “clear light” as the Qur’an. Together, they form a complete and irrefutable case for the truth of Islam.

Thematic Context

The concept of burhān is central to the Quranic theme that faith is based on knowledge and evidence, not blind belief. Islam presents itself not as a set of dogmas to be accepted without question, but as a truth claim supported by proof. The call to faith is a call to reason, to reflect on the signs of God in revelation and in the universe. This appeal to proof positions Islam as a religion of enlightened conviction.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In an age that highly values reason and empirical evidence, the concept of burhān is particularly resonant. Modern Islamic thinkers and apologists often frame their arguments in these terms, presenting the scientific and literary coherence of the Qur’an, as well as philosophical arguments for God’s existence, as forms of burhān. This aligns the Islamic intellectual tradition with the broader human quest for truth through reasoned inquiry, challenging the secular narrative that faith and reason are inherently opposed.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept encourages a believer to seek a faith that is intellectually satisfying, not just emotionally comforting. It is a call to move beyond a inherited or cultural faith to a deeply personal and reasoned conviction. This involves studying the Qur’an, reflecting on its arguments, and engaging with the intellectual tradition of Islam to build a faith that is strong enough to stand up to scrutiny and provide a conclusive “proof” for one’s own heart.

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11. Daraba fī al-Arḍ (ضَرَبَ فِي الْأَرْضِ) – To Travel in the Land

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is an idiomatic phrase. Daraba (ضَرَبَ), from the root ض-ر-ب (Ḍād-Rā’-Bā’), is a polysemous word meaning to hit, to strike, or to set forth. Fī al-Arḍ (فِي الْأَرْضِ) means “in the land.” While literally “to strike in the land,” the idiom Daraba fī al-Arḍ means to travel, to journey, or to move about the earth, often for the purpose of trade, seeking knowledge, or migration. The imagery is of one’s feet “striking” the ground as they journey.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:101), this phrase is used in the context of a specific legal ruling: the permission to shorten the prayer (Salat al-Qasr) while traveling. The classical understanding is that this concession is granted by God to ease the burdens on those who are on a journey, especially in situations of fear or conflict, as mentioned in the verse. The journey itself is the primary condition for this ruling to apply.

Thematic Context

This phrase connects to the broader Quranic theme of divine facilitation and the lifting of hardship (raf‘ al-ḥaraj). Islam is presented not as a rigid set of rituals but as a practical way of life that accommodates human circumstances. The permission to shorten prayers while traveling is a clear example of the law’s flexibility. It shows that the form of worship can be adapted, while the essential connection with God remains paramount, even on the move.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern jurists continue to apply this principle to contemporary forms of travel, debating the minimum distance and duration that qualify for the concession. The principle itself is seen as a testament to the Shari’ah’s inherent pragmatism. Comparatively, many religious traditions have special provisions for pilgrims or travelers, but the Quranic integration of this practical ruling directly within its sacred text underscores the seamless blend of the spiritual and the practical in Islam.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept reminds us that our faith is meant to be a source of ease, not undue difficulty. When life presents challenges, like travel, illness, or other demanding situations, we are encouraged to seek the facilitations that the religion provides. It is a reminder to balance sincere devotion with the mercy and pragmatism embedded within the divine law, ensuring that our spiritual practices support our lives rather than hinder them.

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12. Darajah (دَرَجَة) – A Degree / Rank

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Darajah originates from the root د-ر-ج (Dāl-Rā’-Jīm), which means to ascend step-by-step, to advance gradually, or to move up in rank. A darajah (plural: darajāt) is a step, a degree, a level, or a rank of status or honor. It implies a hierarchy of virtue, responsibility, or reward, where some are elevated above others based on specific criteria.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the term is famously used in verse 4:34 (“Men are the protectors and maintainers of women…”), and later in verse 4:95, which states that those who strive and fight are of a higher rank (darajah) than those who sit at home. Classical commentators have interpreted the darajah in 4:34 as one of leadership and financial responsibility within the family, not inherent superiority. In 4:95, the darajah is clearly one of spiritual merit and divine reward based on sacrifice and effort for the community’s sake.

Thematic Context

The concept of darajāt connects to the Quranic theme of meritocracy and divine justice. The Qur’an establishes a fundamental equality of all humans before God in terms of spiritual potential and accountability. However, it also acknowledges that individuals are distinguished and raised in rank based on their faith, knowledge, piety, and righteous actions. These “degrees” are not arbitrary but are a direct consequence of one’s choices and efforts, whether in family leadership or community service.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The interpretation of darajah in verse 4:34 is a subject of intense modern debate. Many contemporary scholars and Muslim feminists argue against a hierarchical interpretation, suggesting it refers to a degree of added financial burden on men, not a rank of authority. They advocate for a more egalitarian reading in line with the broader Quranic ethos of mutual partnership (awliya’) between spouses. This debate highlights the dynamic process of interpretation as Muslims seek to apply the text to changing social norms.

Practical Reflection & Application

The concept of darajāt based on righteous deeds encourages a healthy sense of spiritual ambition. It motivates one to strive for excellence in faith and character, not to feel superior to others, but to earn a closer station to God. It reminds us that while we are all equal in our humanity, our efforts in kindness, knowledge, and devotion can elevate our spiritual rank in the eyes of our Creator.

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13. Dīn (دِين) – Religion / Judgment

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Dīn has a rich semantic field originating from the root د-ي-ن (Dāl-Yā’-Nūn). This root has two primary meanings that coalesce in the word dīn: 1) Debt, recompense, and judgment. Yawm ad-Dīn is the Day of Judgment or Recompense. 2) A way of life, a custom, or a system of obedience. The word dīn thus refers to a complete way of life based on submission to a higher authority, with the understanding that one will be judged and recompensed for how they live that life. It is far more comprehensive than the English word “religion.”

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, verse 4:171, the People of the Book are told not to commit excess in their dīn. Later, verse 4:125 asks, “And who is better in dīn than one who submits his face to Allah while being a doer of good and follows the religion of Abraham…?” Classical exegetes understand dīn here as the complete system of belief and practice, the path of submission to God. The true dīn is singular—the path of all prophets, which is submission (islām)—though its legal expressions have varied.

Thematic Context

The concept of dīn is foundational to the Surah’s theme of establishing a comprehensive divine order. Islam, as the perfected dīn, is not just a set of private rituals but a complete code that governs all aspects of life, from inheritance and family law to governance and social ethics. The Surah is a practical demonstration of what it means to live by the dīn of God in its totality.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The comprehensiveness of the term dīn is a key point of emphasis for many modern Islamic movements, which argue against the secular privatization of religion. They posit that the Islamic dīn is inherently social and political, meant to guide public life as well as private worship. Comparatively, the English word “religion” often implies a separate sphere of life, whereas dīn implies the very fabric of life itself, a concept more aligned with the traditional understanding of “law” in Judaism.

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding the full meaning of dīn is a call to live a life of integration and coherence, where one’s spiritual beliefs inform one’s actions in every sphere—family, work, and community. It is a challenge to overcome the split between the “religious” and “secular” parts of our lives and to strive to live a single, unified life of submission to God, aware that our every action is part of the “debt” we owe Him, for which we will be recompensed on the Day of Judgment.

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14. Fāḥishah (فَاحِشَة) – A Shameful Act / Indecency

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Fāḥishah stems from the root ف-ح-ش (Fā’-Ḥā’-Shīn). This root’s semantic range covers everything that is obscene, lewd, shameful, and excessive. A fāḥishah is an act that transgresses the bounds of decency and is considered objectively abominable, either legally, morally, or culturally. It refers to a sin that is not only wrong but is also openly vulgar and scandalous.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, fāḥishah is mentioned in several contexts. In 4:15, it is used in reference to unlawful sexual intercourse, for which a specific legal testimony is required. In 4:19, it refers to “manifest indecency” on the part of a wife, which would be a valid reason to withhold a portion of her dowry in a divorce settlement. The classical view is that it refers primarily to major sins of a sexual nature, like adultery, but can also include other scandalous acts like slander or open rebellion.

Thematic Context

The prohibition of fāḥishah is part of the Surah’s broader theme of establishing social purity and protecting family honor. The stringent requirements for proving such an act (four witnesses) are thematically linked to the protection of women from slander and false accusations. By defining these acts as grave offenses and setting a high bar for proof, the law aims to preserve the sanctity of private life and the reputation of individuals, especially women, thereby fostering a society built on modesty and mutual respect.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern discussions on fāḥishah often grapple with its definition in a hyper-sexualized global culture. The term is interpreted as a warning against the normalization of public indecency and the erosion of modesty (ḥayā’). The Quranic principle is seen as a safeguard for society, protecting it from the social disintegration that can result from the breakdown of sexual ethics. Comparatively, while secular societies may define harm primarily in terms of consent, the Islamic concept of fāḥishah posits that some acts are intrinsically harmful to the spiritual and social fabric, regardless of consent.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept calls for a reflection on the value of modesty (ḥayā’) in one’s own life—in speech, dress, and conduct, both in public and private. It is a reminder to avoid not only major sins but also the kind of behavior that is shameless or vulgar, and which lowers the standard of decency in society. It encourages cultivating a sense of dignity and self-respect that is reflected in one’s actions.

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15. Faḍl (فَضْل) – Bounty / Grace

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Faḍl comes from the root ف-ض-ل (Fā’-Ḍād-Lām), which means to exceed, to be surplus, or to be superior. From this, faḍl means bounty, grace, or favor. It is something given over and above what is strictly required or deserved. It is a gift of pure generosity, a surplus that comes from a source of abundance.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, faḍl is almost always attributed to God. Verse 4:32 tells believers not to covet that by which God has made some of them exceed others (faḍḍala), but to “ask Allah for His bounty (faḍl).” Verse 4:175 promises that those who hold fast to God will be admitted into His mercy and grace (faḍl). Classical commentators interpret God’s faḍl as His unearned and immeasurable gifts, both material (wealth, children) and spiritual (faith, guidance, forgiveness). It is the source of all good that comes to a person.

Thematic Context

The theme of divine faḍl is a crucial counterbalance to the Surah’s emphasis on law and human effort. While believers are commanded to strive, obey, and act justly, they are constantly reminded that their success, their rewards, and even their ability to do good are not from themselves, but are a gift from God’s grace. This fosters humility and gratitude, preventing the righteous from becoming arrogant and the sinner from falling into despair.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of grace is central to many theologies, particularly Christianity. The Islamic concept of faḍl shares the idea of being an unmerited divine gift. However, in mainstream Islamic theology, grace does not abrogate the law or the necessity of human effort. Rather, faḍl is what enables and perfects human effort. One works, and God’s grace provides the result. This creates a balanced theology of synergy between divine grace and human responsibility.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on faḍl is a powerful antidote to envy and entitlement. When we see someone who has more than us, instead of feeling jealousy, the Qur’an teaches us to ask God for His faḍl. When we achieve something, instead of feeling proud, we are reminded to attribute it to God’s faḍl. It is a daily practice of cultivating a mindset of abundance and gratitude, recognizing that every good thing in our lives, from the breath we take to the faith in our hearts, is a surplus gift of grace from God.

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16. Farā’iḍ (فَرَائِض) – Prescribed Shares / Ordinances

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Farā’iḍ is the plural of farīḍah, which comes from the root ف-ر-ض (Fā’-Rā’-Ḍād). This root means to decree, to ordain, to prescribe, or to allocate a fixed portion. A farīḍah is an obligatory duty or a determined share that has been divinely appointed. It implies that the matter is settled by God and is not open to human negotiation or alteration.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, this term is used specifically to refer to the fixed, quantitative shares of inheritance laid out in verses 4:11-12 and 4:176. These verses are known as ‘Āyāt al-Mawārīth (The Verses of Inheritance). Classical jurists and exegetes have meticulously detailed these laws, viewing them as a cornerstone of Islamic law (Shari’ah). They are considered a farīḍah min Allāh (“an ordinance from God”), emphasizing their divine origin and binding nature.

Thematic Context

The detailed laws of inheritance are central to the Surah’s theme of economic justice and the protection of the vulnerable. By specifying the exact shares for women (daughters, wives, mothers, sisters) and other relatives, the Qur’an radically reformed the pre-Islamic patriarchal system where women were often excluded from inheritance. These farā’iḍ ensure a just distribution of wealth within the family, preventing disputes and safeguarding the economic rights of individuals who might otherwise be exploited.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Islamic laws of inheritance are a subject of extensive study and sometimes debate in the modern era. Some argue for a reinterpretation (ijtihad) of the shares based on changing family roles and economic contributions, while traditional scholars maintain their immutability as a direct divine command. Comparatively, the Quranic system is unique in its codification of fixed shares for a wide range of relatives, contrasting with systems like primogeniture (inheritance by the firstborn son) or systems based solely on testamentary freedom (the will of the deceased).

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding the concept of farā’iḍ instills a deep respect for divine wisdom in organizing society. For individuals, it means ensuring that their own wills and estate planning are in accordance with these divine injunctions. It is a practical test of submission to God’s law, particularly in financial matters, and serves as a means of maintaining justice and harmony within the family even after one’s passing.

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17. Fitnah (فِتْنَة) – Trial / Temptation / Persecution

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Fitnah comes from the root ف-ت-ن (Fā’-Tā’-Nūn). The original meaning of this root is to test gold or silver by putting it in fire to purify it and remove impurities. From this powerful image, fitnah develops its meanings: 1) A trial or test from God designed to reveal one’s true faith. 2) A temptation or affliction that can lead one astray. 3) Persecution, civil strife, or discord that tests the fabric of the community.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, fitnah is mentioned in the context of the hypocrites. Verse 4:91 describes those who, whenever they are turned back to fitnah (temptation or persecution), they plunge into it. It also appears in the context of war, where killing a person by mistake is a lesser evil than fitnah (persecution or the attempt to force someone from their religion), which is described elsewhere as being “worse than killing.” The classical understanding is that fitnah is a severe test of a believer’s steadfastness.

Thematic Context

The theme of fitnah connects to the Surah’s realistic portrayal of the struggles faced by the nascent Muslim community. Life is not presented as an easy path; it is fraught with tests, both internal (temptations) and external (persecution from enemies, discord from hypocrites). The Surah provides the legal and spiritual tools to navigate these trials successfully, with the ultimate goal of emerging from the “fire” of the test like purified gold.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern usage, the term fitnah is often used to refer to chaos, sedition, and civil strife within the Muslim world. It is seen as one of the greatest dangers to the well-being of the ummah. The Quranic concept provides a framework for understanding hardship: adversity is not a sign of God’s displeasure, but a test designed to strengthen faith and purify the soul. This resonates with the concept of “trials and tribulations” in Judeo-Christian thought, which are also seen as tests of faith and instruments of spiritual growth.

Practical Reflection & Application

When faced with a personal trial—be it a financial hardship, a difficult relationship, or a crisis of faith—the concept of fitnah allows us to reframe it. Instead of asking “Why is this happening to me?” we can ask, “What is this test meant to teach me? How can I pass it in a way that pleases God?” This transforms adversity from a meaningless affliction into a purposeful opportunity for spiritual purification and growth.

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18. Ghulūw (غُلُوّ) – Exaggeration / Extremism

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Ghulūw comes from the root غ-ل-و (Ghayn-Lām-Wāw), which means to exceed the proper bounds, to go to an extreme, to exaggerate, or to be excessive. It conveys the sense of overshooting the mark or going beyond the established limits in any matter, but particularly in matters of belief and religious practice. It is the antithesis of moderation and the middle path (wasatiyyah).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:171), the command “Do not commit excess in your religion” (Lā taghlū fī dīnikum) is addressed directly to the Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book). Classical commentators unanimously agree that this verse specifically critiques the Christian deification of Jesus (‘Īsā) and his mother Mary (Maryam), peace be upon them. Elevating a prophet to the status of God is presented as a prime example of ghulūw in faith—an excessive love and reverence that transgresses the core principle of pure monotheism (Tawḥīd).

Thematic Context

The prohibition of ghulūw is central to the Quranic theme of maintaining theological purity and balance. The Surah engages in a polemic with other communities not to condemn them wholesale, but to call them back to the pristine, balanced monotheism that the Qur’an argues was the original message of all prophets. This theme serves as a warning to the Muslim community itself against the potential danger of exaggerating the status of its own prophets or saints, thereby preserving the fundamental distinction between the Creator and the created.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern discourse, the concept of ghulūw has been broadly applied to condemn all forms of religious extremism and fanaticism. It is used as a core Quranic principle to argue against radical ideologies that employ excessive violence, declare other Muslims as apostates (takfir), or impose religious practices beyond what the Shari’ah requires. It serves as an internal, authentic Islamic critique of extremism. The concept resonates with the philosophical principle of the “golden mean” found in Greek philosophy, which advocates for virtue as a moderate course between two extremes.

Practical Reflection & Application

This principle encourages a balanced and moderate approach to one’s own religious practice. It is a call to be passionate in faith without becoming fanatical, to be devout without being self-righteous, and to adhere to the principles of the religion without adding burdensome, man-made innovations. It means practicing the faith with both sincerity and a sense of healthy proportion, avoiding extremism in all its forms.

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19. Ḥanīf (حَنِيف) – Upright Monotheist

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ḥanīf (plural: ḥunafā’) comes from the root ح-ن-ف (Ḥā’-Nūn-Fā’), which means to incline or to lean. A ḥanīf is one who “inclines away” from the falsehood of polytheism and “inclines towards” the pure, unadulterated truth of the oneness of God (Tawḥīd). The term is used to describe Abraham and those who followed his pristine, natural monotheism before the formal revelations of the Torah, Gospel, or Qur’an.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:125, the Qur’an poses a rhetorical question: “And who is better in religion than one who submits his face to Allah… and follows the religion (millah) of Abraham, the upright (ḥanīfan)?” Classical scholars interpret this verse as establishing a direct spiritual lineage back to Abraham. To be a ḥanīf is to embrace the essential core of all prophetic teachings: pure monotheism and sincere submission to the one true God, free from the schisms and dogmatic excesses that later afflicted other communities.

Thematic Context

The concept of the ḥanīf is central to the Quranic theme of universalism and the primordial nature of faith. It posits that the true religion of God is not a new invention but a timeless, natural inclination (fiṭrah) placed within every human being. By calling believers to the path of Abraham the ḥanīf, the Surah frames Islam not as a sectarian movement, but as the restoration of the original, universal faith of humanity.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The term ḥanīf is significant in modern interfaith dialogue, as it represents a pre-confessional, shared Abrahamic heritage. It suggests a common ground of pure monotheism upon which Jews, Christians, and Muslims can connect. The concept challenges the idea of religions as mutually exclusive cultural blocs, instead pointing to a singular, underlying truth that has been expressed in different forms throughout history.

Practical Reflection & Application

To strive to be a ḥanīf is to seek a faith that is pure, sincere, and uncluttered. It is an invitation to connect with God in a direct and natural way, focusing on the core principles of monotheism and submission rather than getting lost in secondary matters or cultural baggage. It means constantly “inclining away” from the modern idols of materialism, ego, and ideology, and “inclining towards” the one, eternal truth of the Creator.

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20. Ḥasad (حَسَد) – Envy

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Ḥasad comes from the root ح-س-د (Ḥā’-Sīn-Dāl), which means to envy. Ḥasad is a destructive emotion. It is not merely wanting a blessing that someone else has (which is a permissible form of aspiration called ghibṭah). Rather, ḥasad is the sickness of the heart that wishes for the blessing to be removed from the other person, whether one gets it for oneself or not. It is a feeling of resentful discontent at the good fortune of others.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:54), the Qur’an asks, “Or do they envy (yaḥsudūna) people for what Allah has given them of His bounty?” Classical commentators state that this verse refers to the envy that some of the People of the Book felt towards the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims for having been chosen to receive revelation and divine favor. This envy, born of arrogance and tribalism, was a primary reason for their rejection of the truth, despite recognizing it.

Thematic Context

The condemnation of ḥasad is thematically linked to the Surah’s call to purify the heart and build a healthy community. Envy is a socially corrosive vice. It destroys brotherhood, fosters malice, and prevents a person from being happy for the success of others. A community riddled with envy cannot be cohesive or just. The Surah identifies it as a spiritual disease that can blind a person to the truth and lead them to reject divine guidance.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Ḥasad is a timeless human problem, arguably amplified in the modern era by social media, which creates a constant curated display of others’ successes and blessings, fueling social comparison and envy. The Islamic tradition views it as a “disease of the soul” that “devours good deeds the way fire devours wood.” This understanding aligns with modern psychology, which recognizes envy as a toxic emotion linked to depression, anxiety, and resentment. The sin of “envy” is also one of the seven deadly sins in Catholic Christian theology.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical cure for ḥasad involves several steps. First, one must seek refuge in God from the evil of the envier, as taught in Surah Al-Falaq. Second, one must actively pray for the person one envies, asking God to increase their blessing. This counter-intuitive act breaks the negative impulse. Third, one must focus on one’s own blessings and cultivate gratitude (shukr), recognizing that God’s bounty (faḍl) is vast and He gives to whom He wills according to His wisdom.

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21. Ḥasīb (حَسِيب) – Reckoner / Accountant

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ḥasīb derives from the root ح-س-ب (Ḥā’-Sīn-Bā’), which revolves around the meaning of counting, calculating, reckoning, and holding to account. As one of God’s names (Asmā’ Allāh al-Ḥusnā), Al-Ḥasīb means The All-Sufficient Reckoner or The Supreme Accountant. It implies one who takes account of all deeds, small and great, and who is sufficient as a protector and provider for those who trust in Him.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the phrase “And sufficient is Allah as a Reckoner” (wa kafā billāhi ḥasībā) appears in several verses (e.g., 4:6). The classical interpretation is that this serves as both a comfort and a warning. It is a comfort to the believers, especially the weak and the orphaned, that even if humans fail to give them their due, God is keeping a perfect account and will ensure ultimate justice. It is a warning to potential oppressors that no deed, no matter how secret, escapes God’s meticulous record.

Thematic Context

This divine attribute is thematically crucial for the Surah’s emphasis on justice and accountability. The Surah lays out numerous laws regarding trusts, inheritance, and fair treatment. The reminder that God is Ḥasīb underpins all these laws with a powerful enforcement mechanism: divine oversight. It shifts the focus from mere compliance with worldly law to a deeper, God-consciousness (taqwā), where one acts justly not out of fear of human authority, but out of awareness that God is the ultimate witness and reckoner.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern ethical discussions highlight this attribute as fostering a profound sense of individual responsibility. The belief in a divine Ḥasīb cultivates an “internal locus of control,” where one’s moral compass is guided by a constant awareness of God’s accounting, rather than by external pressures or the likelihood of getting caught. This concept of a divine, all-encompassing audit of one’s life is a powerful feature in Abrahamic religions, serving as a foundation for morality and eschatological hope.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on God as Al-Ḥasīb can be a powerful daily practice. Before acting or speaking, one can pause and remember that this deed is being recorded in a perfect account. This can deter one from injustice and motivate one towards acts of kindness, even when no one is watching. It also brings peace when one has been wronged, fostering trust that perfect justice will ultimately be served by the Supreme Accountant.

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22. Ḥasanah (حَسَنَة) – A Good Deed / Good Fortune

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Ḥasanah comes from the root ح-س-ن (Ḥā’-Sīn-Nūn), which means to be good, beautiful, handsome, or excellent. A ḥasanah is a single instance of goodness. It can refer to a good deed, a virtuous act, a blessing, or a fortunate occurrence. Its opposite is sayyi’ah (an evil deed or misfortune), which comes from a root meaning “to be evil” or “to sadden.”

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In the pivotal verse of Surah An-Nisa 4:79 (“Whatever good (ḥasanah) befalls you, is from Allah; and whatever evil (sayyi’ah) befalls you, is from yourself”), classical exegetes have engaged in profound theological discussions. The consensus is that all things, both good and bad fortune, are ultimately from God in the sense that they occur only by His will and decree (qadar). However, the verse attributes the ḥasanah (good) directly to God as a source of pure grace and bounty, while the sayyi’ah (evil/misfortune) is attributed to “yourself” as being the direct consequence or deserved outcome of human sin and error. It is a subtle way of teaching divine grace and human responsibility simultaneously.

Thematic Context

This concept is central to the Quranic theme of divine omnipotence and human accountability. The Surah deals extensively with the struggles of the early Muslim community, including military losses and internal hypocrisy. This verse provides a theological framework for understanding success and failure. Success is a gift from God to be grateful for, not a source of arrogance. Failure or misfortune, on the other hand, should prompt introspection and repentance, not despair or blaming God.

Modern & Comparative Lens

This verse continues to be a cornerstone of Islamic theology in discussions on the problem of evil and free will. Modern thinkers emphasize its psychological power: attributing good to God fosters humility and gratitude, while attributing misfortune to one’s own failings promotes self-reflection, personal growth, and accountability. This contrasts with purely deterministic philosophies that can lead to fatalism, or purely secular views that might attribute everything to random chance.

Practical Reflection & Application

This principle offers a powerful mindset for navigating life’s ups and downs. When good things happen—a promotion, good health, a happy family moment—the immediate response should be gratitude (shukr) to God. When challenges or misfortunes arise—a financial loss, a conflict, a personal failure—the first response should be self-reflection (muhasabah) and repentance (tawbah), asking, “What can I learn from this? How can I improve?” This fosters a proactive, resilient, and spiritually grounded personality.

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23. Hijrah (هِجْرَة) – Migration

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Hijrah comes from the root ه-ج-ر (Hā’-Jīm-Rā’), which means to depart, to abandon, to forsake, or to migrate. It signifies a physical separation and movement from one place to another, but it carries a strong connotation of abandoning something negative (like a place of oppression or sin) for something positive (a place of freedom and worship). It is not merely travel, but a relocation with a higher purpose.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (e.g., 4:97-100), Hijrah refers to the act of migrating from a land where a Muslim is unable to practice their religion freely to a land where they can. The verses criticize those who remain in a land of oppression (“the land of the unjust”) without a valid excuse, considering it a grave failure. The classical context is the migration from Meccan persecution to the safety of Abyssinia or, most importantly, to Medina. The Surah promises vast refuge and a great reward for those who undertake this difficult journey for the sake of God.

Thematic Context

Hijrah is a pivotal theme in the Qur’an, representing a paradigm of sacrifice and rebirth. It marks the transition from a state of weakness and persecution to one of community-building and empowerment. In Surah An-Nisa, it is tied to the very definition of a committed believer. The willingness to leave behind one’s home, property, and family for the sake of faith is presented as a true test of one’s conviction. It is the physical manifestation of prioritizing God over worldly attachments.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In the modern world, the concept of Hijrah is understood in both its literal and metaphorical senses. The literal migration from lands of war or religious persecution remains a reality for many Muslims. Metaphorically, Sufi and spiritual thinkers speak of the “greater hijrah” as the internal migration away from the “self” (nafs) and its sins towards a state of submission to God. This inner journey of abandoning bad habits and embracing virtuous ones is seen as a continuous, lifelong struggle. The concept finds parallels in the Jewish story of the Exodus, a foundational migration from bondage to freedom.

Practical Reflection & Application

The principle of Hijrah challenges us to identify the “lands of oppression” in our own lives. This might not be a physical place but a negative environment, a toxic relationship, or a deeply ingrained sinful habit. Hijrah, in its personal application, is the decisive act of abandoning that which harms our spiritual well-being and moving towards people, places, and practices that allow our faith to flourish. It is the courage to make a radical change for the sake of God.

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24. Ḥudūd (حُدُود) – Limits / Boundaries

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ḥudūd is the plural of ḥadd, which comes from the root ح-د-د (Ḥā’-Dāl-Dāl). This root means to prevent, to delimit, or to set a boundary. A ḥadd is therefore a limit, a boundary, or a restriction. In Islamic legal terminology, Ḥudūd Allāh refers to the sacred “limits” or “boundaries” set by God, which define the realms of the lawful (ḥalāl) and the unlawful (ḥarām).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Immediately after detailing the intricate laws of inheritance, Surah An-Nisa concludes the section with a powerful statement in 4:13-14: “These are the limits [set by] Allah (tilka ḥudūdu-llāh)… Whoever disobeys Allah and His Messenger and transgresses His limits, He will put him into the Fire to abide eternally therein.” Classical exegetes have emphasized the gravity of these verses. The detailed laws of the Qur’an are not mere suggestions; they are sacred boundaries, and transgressing them is a direct act of defiance against God.

Thematic Context

The concept of ḥudūd is central to the theme of divine law and order. It establishes that freedom is not absolute; it is to be exercised within a framework of divine boundaries designed for the well-being of the individual and society. These limits are not meant to be arbitrary restrictions but are like the “guardrails” on the path to success in this life and the next, preventing humanity from falling into the abyss of chaos and self-destruction.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern jurisprudence, the term ḥudūd is often narrowly associated with a specific category of criminal punishments in Islamic law. However, its Quranic usage is much broader, referring to all divine limits, including those in family law, ethics, and ritual worship. The broader concept is a challenge to modern secular libertarianism, which often resists the idea of any transcendent moral limits on individual autonomy. The Quranic worldview posits that true freedom is found not in the absence of boundaries, but in willing submission to the wise and compassionate boundaries set by the Creator.

Practical Reflection & Application

Living a life of faith involves being conscious of the ḥudūd Allāh in all our affairs. It is a daily practice of mindfulness, of knowing where the boundaries are between the permissible and the forbidden in our speech, our financial dealings, our relationships, and our entertainment. Respecting these limits is the essence of taqwā (God-consciousness) and is the key to living a life that is balanced, just, and in harmony with the divine order.

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25. Ḥukm (حُكْم) – Judgment / Rule

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ḥukm comes from the root ح-ك-م (Ḥā’-Kāf-Mīm). This root carries the core meanings of to judge, to rule, to command, and to prevent wrongdoing. It is also the root of the word ḥikmah (wisdom), implying that true judgment and rule are based on wisdom. Ḥukm can refer to a specific legal ruling, the act of judging, or the authority to rule itself.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:58), the command to “judge between people with justice” is a cornerstone of Islamic governance. Classical exegetes understood this as a binding command on anyone in a position of authority, from a caliph to a local judge to a family arbitrator. Furthermore, in verses like 4:65, which state that people will not have true faith until they make the Prophet the judge (yuḥakkimūka) in their disputes, the term ḥukm is linked to the very essence of submission to divine revelation. It means accepting God’s law as the ultimate arbiter in all affairs.

Thematic Context

The concept of Ḥukm is integral to the Surah’s theme of establishing a just and divinely-guided social order. The Surah is filled with legal rulings (aḥkām) on family, civil, and criminal matters. The command to implement this ḥukm justly and to accept it willingly is what transforms a mere collection of individuals into a cohesive community (ummah) governed by a shared moral and legal framework. The ultimate sovereignty and right to legislate (ḥākimiyyah) belongs to God alone.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern political Islam, the concept of Ḥukm Allāh (God’s Rule) has been a central and often contentious idea. Thinkers have debated how the divine command to rule by God’s law should be implemented in the context of the modern nation-state. Interpretations range from calls for the full implementation of classical Islamic law to arguments that the principle is fulfilled by ensuring that a state’s laws align with the higher objectives (maqāṣid) of the Shari’ah, such as justice, mercy, and public welfare. The concept forces a deep engagement with the relationship between revelation, reason, and political authority.

Practical Reflection & Application

On a personal level, ḥukm applies to our own decision-making. It is the practice of turning to the principles of the Qur’an and Sunnah as the ultimate criteria for judging our own affairs and disputes. When faced with a moral dilemma or a conflict with another person, the principle of ḥukm encourages us to ask, “What would be the most just and wise decision according to God’s guidance?” rather than relying solely on our own desires or cultural norms.

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26. Iblīs (إِبْلِيس) – Iblis (Satan’s Proper Name)

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The name Iblīs is believed to be derived from the root ب-ل-س (Bā’-Lām-Sīn), which means to despair or to give up hope. Iblīs is so-named because he is in a state of complete despair of ever receiving God’s mercy. While Shayṭān (Satan) is a descriptive title for his role as a remote and rebellious tempter, Iblīs is his proper name, referring to the specific Jinn who, out of arrogance, disobeyed God’s command to prostrate to Adam.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While the name Iblīs does not appear in Surah An-Nisa, his persona and work as Shayṭān are a major theme. The Surah focuses on his actions: misleading humanity, making false promises, and acting as a deceptive companion (4:38, 4:60, 4:120). The story of Iblīs‘s original act of disobedience, mentioned elsewhere in the Qur’an, provides the backstory for his enmity towards humanity. His rebellion was rooted in arrogance (kibr) and envy (ḥasad), the very same spiritual diseases that Surah An-Nisa warns the believers against.

Thematic Context

The figure of Iblīs is central to the Quranic theme of the cosmic struggle between good and evil. His story serves as the archetypal narrative of rebellion against God. By understanding his motives—arrogance and envy—believers are warned against the root causes of sin. He is the ultimate example of how a creature, given free will, can choose the path of defiance and become a force for corruption in the universe.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The story of Iblīs is the Islamic counterpart to the narrative of Lucifer or Satan in the Judeo-Christian tradition. A key difference in the Islamic account is that the fall of Iblīs is not presented as a rebellion of a fallen angel in heaven, but as an act of disobedience on the occasion of humanity’s creation. Crucially, he does not tempt Adam and Eve to become “like gods,” but deceives them with a false promise of eternal life. The narrative emphasizes his role as a deceiver rather than a rival power to God.

Practical Reflection & Application

The story of Iblīs is a profound lesson in the dangers of arrogance. He was a devout worshipper, but his one act of prideful disobedience led to his eternal damnation. This is a humbling reminder that no amount of worship or knowledge can save a person if their heart is polluted with arrogance. The practical application is to constantly strive for humility before God and His creation, recognizing that our only worth comes from our submission to Him, not from our lineage, wealth, or achievements.

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27. Iḥsān (إِحْسَان) – Excellence / To Do What is Beautiful

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Iḥsān comes from the root ح-س-ن (Ḥā’-Sīn-Nūn), which means to be good, beautiful, or excellent. Iḥsān is the verbal noun and represents the highest level of spiritual and ethical conduct. It means to do things in the most excellent, beautiful, and perfect way possible. The famous Hadith of Gabriel defines it as “to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot see Him, then to know that He sees you.” It is the pinnacle of faith (īmān) and submission (islām).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, verse 4:36, after commanding the worship of God alone, a list of those to whom one must show kindness is given, concluding with the powerful statement, “Indeed, Allah loves the doers of good (al-muḥsinīn).” The entire list of kind acts falls under the umbrella of iḥsān. Verse 4:125 also links the best religion to one who “submits his face to Allah while being a doer of good (muḥsin).” The classical understanding is that iḥsān is the required quality in all our actions, from worship to social interactions.

Thematic Context

The theme of iḥsān represents the spiritual pinnacle of the Surah’s ethical vision. While ‘adl (justice) is the minimum standard required—giving everyone their due rights—iḥsān is the higher standard of excellence and generosity—giving more than what is due. The Surah lays out the legal framework for a just society, but it encourages believers to aspire beyond mere justice to a state of proactive, beautiful goodness in all their dealings.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Iḥsān is a core concept in Islamic ethics and spirituality (Sufism), often described as the “heart” of Islam. In a modern context, it is applied to everything from business ethics (striving for excellent products and fair treatment of employees) to environmentalism (beautiful and excellent stewardship of the earth). The concept of acting with the awareness of a constant divine presence finds parallels in the concept of “practicing the presence of God” in Christian mysticism and the idea of mindfulness in Buddhist traditions.

Practical Reflection & Application

Iḥsān challenges us to bring a qualitative dimension to all our actions. It is not just about praying, but praying with concentration. It is not just about doing our job, but doing it with excellence. It is not just about being kind, but being kind in the most beautiful and thoughtful way. A simple practice is to pause before any action and ask, “How can I do this in a way that would be most pleasing to God, who is watching me?” This transforms even mundane acts into opportunities for worship.

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28. Īmān (إِيمَان) – Faith

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Īmān derives from the root أ-م-ن (Alif-Mīm-Nūn), which means safety, security, and trustworthiness. Īmān is not merely a passive “belief in” something; it is an active state of placing one’s trust and security in God. To have īmān is to find ultimate peace and security in the truths of revelation. It is the opposite of fear (khawf) and insecurity. It is a conviction that settles in the heart and is expressed through the limbs.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Throughout Surah An-Nisa, īmān is presented as the essential prerequisite for all righteous actions. The famous opening address, “O you who have believed” (Yā ayyuhā alladhīna āmanū), precedes many of the Surah’s key commands. Classical scholars have emphasized that īmān, according to the Quranic model, is not just an internal feeling. It is a firm conviction in the heart, an affirmation with the tongue, and, crucially, a demonstration through action (‘amal). The Surah constantly contrasts the people of true īmān with the hypocrites (munāfiqūn), whose faith is superficial and wavering.

Thematic Context

Īmān is the foundational theme upon which the entire Surah is built. Every command—to be just to orphans, to give women their rights, to obey God and His messenger, to fight for the oppressed—is addressed to the community of faith. The Surah illustrates that a just and compassionate society can only be built by individuals whose actions are motivated by a deep and sincere īmān. Faith is thus the engine of social transformation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern theological discussions often explore the relationship between īmān and reason (‘aql). The Islamic tradition, unlike some strands of other faiths, generally sees no inherent conflict between the two. Īmān is not a “blind faith” but a reasoned conviction that is meant to be nurtured by reflection (tafakkur) on creation and revelation. Comparatively, the active and holistic nature of īmān—encompassing belief, speech, and action—is more akin to the Hebraic concept of emunah (faithfulness, trust) than to the Greek concept of pistis, which can sometimes be understood as mere intellectual assent.

Practical Reflection & Application

Nurturing īmān is a lifelong journey. It is strengthened by acts of worship, gaining knowledge, performing good deeds, and reflecting on the signs of God in the universe. A practical application is to constantly check the alignment of our beliefs and our actions. Do my actions truly reflect the faith I profess in my heart? This self-assessment is the key to developing a robust and authentic īmān that brings true security and purpose to life.

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29. Ithm (إِثْم) – Sin

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ithm comes from the root أ-ث-م (Alif-Thā’-Mīm), and it is a general term for sin or wrongdoing. Linguistically, it conveys the sense of something that holds a person back, a burden that slows them down on their journey towards God. It is often used for sins that are committed knowingly and intentionally, and which have a clear negative consequence, either on the individual or on society.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa speaks of ithm in several contexts. It warns against consuming wealth unjustly, calling it a “great sin” (ithman mubīnā, 4:20). Verse 4:112 speaks of one who commits a fault or a sin (ithm) and then blames it on an innocent person, thus shouldering a double burden of falsehood and manifest sin. Classical scholars differentiate between different types of sin, but ithm generally refers to a deliberate transgression for which one is blameworthy.

Thematic Context

The theme of sin and its consequences is central to the Surah’s emphasis on accountability and divine justice. The Surah is not merely a legal textbook; it is a moral guide that clearly delineates right from wrong and warns of the spiritual and otherworldly consequences of choosing the path of sin. The concept of ithm reminds believers that their actions have weight and that they are accountable to God for their deliberate choices.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of “sin” is fundamental to the Abrahamic faiths. Islam’s categorization of sins (e.g., major and minor) and its emphasis on intention provide a sophisticated ethical framework. Modern discussions often explore the psychology of sin, viewing ithm not just as a violation of a rule but as an act that is fundamentally harmful to the human soul (nafs), causing spiritual disease and alienation from one’s true, primordial nature (fiṭrah).

Practical Reflection & Application

Recognizing what constitutes ithm is the first step in avoiding it. This requires seeking knowledge of the religion’s moral and legal teachings. The practical application is to cultivate a state of vigilance (murāqabah) over one’s actions, words, and even thoughts, striving to avoid what is displeasing to God. When one inevitably falls into sin, the immediate recourse is sincere repentance (tawbah), which can wipe away the burden of ithm.

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30. Jāhiliyyah (جَاهِلِيَّة) – The Age of Ignorance

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Jāhiliyyah comes from the root ج-ه-ل (Jīm-Hā’-Lām), which means to be ignorant, foolish, or to act in a reckless or arrogant manner. Jāhiliyyah does not simply mean ignorance in the sense of a lack of knowledge, but rather a state of ignoring divine guidance. It refers to a worldview and a set of social practices based on tribal arrogance, passion, and injustice, rather than on revelation and reason. It is a state of moral and spiritual ignorance.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (e.g., 4:60, where people seek the judgment of Taghut), the term isn’t used explicitly, but the concept is pervasive. The pre-Islamic practices that the Surah seeks to reform—such as the unjust treatment of orphans and women, the denial of female inheritance, and arbitrary marriage practices—are all considered hallmarks of Jāhiliyyah. The classical view is that the Qur’an came to replace the “rule of ignorance” (ḥukm al-jāhiliyyah) with the “rule of God” (ḥukm Allāh).

Thematic Context

The theme of dismantling Jāhiliyyah is a major undercurrent of the Surah. The establishment of a just legal and social framework in Surah An-Nisa is a direct and systematic refutation of the chaotic and oppressive customs of the pre-Islamic era. By legislating on the most intimate aspects of life—family and inheritance—the Qur’an shows that its guidance is meant to create a complete civilizational alternative to the unjust order of Jāhiliyyah.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern Islamic thinkers have often used the term Jāhiliyyah to describe contemporary societies, both Muslim and non-Muslim, which they argue have abandoned divine guidance in favor of materialism, secularism, or nationalism. Thinkers like Sayyid Qutb famously argued for the existence of a “modern Jāhiliyyah.” This application is controversial but highlights the understanding of Jāhiliyyah not as a mere historical period, but as a recurring state of human society whenever it turns away from divine revelation as its primary source of values and law.

Practical Reflection & Application

The concept of Jāhiliyyah prompts a personal reflection on the “pockets of ignorance” within our own lives and communities. Are there cultural practices we follow blindly, even if they contradict the just and compassionate principles of our faith? Are there areas where our decisions are driven by arrogance, peer pressure, or materialism rather than by God-consciousness? Striving to replace these ignorant attitudes and actions with choices based on divine guidance is the personal struggle against Jāhiliyyah.

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31. Jahannam (جَهَنَّم) – Hell

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The origin of the word Jahannam is believed to be a loanword, likely from the Hebrew Gehinnom (the Valley of Hinnom), a place outside Jerusalem historically associated with fire and punishment. In Arabic, the root ج-ه-م (Jīm-Hā’-Mīm) is associated with having a stern, grim face and darkness. Thus, Jahannam evokes imagery of a dark, terrifying, and grim place of punishment. It is the most common name for the Hell-fire in the Qur’an.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Throughout Surah An-Nisa, Jahannam is mentioned as the final abode for those who persistently engage in major sins without repentance. It is the promised destination for those who wrongfully consume the property of orphans (4:10), for murderers (4:93), for hypocrites (4:140), and for those who oppose the Messenger after guidance has come to them. Classical commentators describe it as a real, physical place of immense suffering, with scorching fires and other torments, which serve as a just recompense for disbelief and transgression.

Thematic Context

The threat of Jahannam functions as a powerful deterrent, adding weight and urgency to the Surah’s legal and moral commands. It is the ultimate consequence of injustice, hypocrisy, and disbelief. The theme of divine justice requires not only a reward for the righteous (Jannah) but also a just punishment for those who have knowingly and arrogantly violated God’s sacred limits (ḥudūd). The vivid descriptions of Jahannam serve to awaken the conscience and encourage accountability.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern theological interpretations vary. While traditional views hold to a literal understanding of the descriptions of Hell, some modernist thinkers view the imagery as metaphorical representations of the spiritual state of being completely alienated from God’s mercy. The concept of a place of eternal punishment for the wicked is a common feature of the Abrahamic faiths, although there are internal debates within each tradition regarding its nature and duration. The Quranic emphasis, however, is consistently on its reality as the outcome of divine justice.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on Jahannam is not meant to induce morbid despair, but to cultivate a healthy sense of fear (khawf) of God’s justice, which in turn leads to piety (taqwā). It is a powerful reminder of the serious consequences of our choices. This awareness should motivate a person to flee from injustice, to seek forgiveness for their sins, and to strive earnestly to live a life that is pleasing to God, thereby seeking His protection from such a dreadful end.

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32. Jihād (جِهَاد) – Struggle

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Jihād comes from the root ج-ه-د (Jīm-Hā’-Dāl), which means to strive, to struggle, or to exert one’s utmost effort. It is a much broader concept than just “holy war.” It refers to any earnest struggle in the cause of God. This can be an internal, spiritual struggle against one’s own ego (jihād al-nafs), a social struggle to promote justice and enjoin good, or, in its martial dimension (called qitāl), a physical struggle to defend the community from aggression.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa contains several verses on the martial aspect of jihād (qitāl), urging believers to fight in the cause of God and for the protection of the oppressed—the weak men, women, and children (4:74-76). It also makes a clear distinction in rank and reward between “those who sit back” and “those who strive and fight (al-mujāhidūn) in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives” (4:95). The classical understanding is that this defensive struggle is a communal obligation under specific circumstances and with strict ethical constraints.

Thematic Context

The theme of jihād connects to the Surah’s focus on establishing a just society and protecting it from hostile forces. The Surah acknowledges that creating a just order is not a passive process; it requires active struggle against the forces of tyranny, oppression (ẓulm), and aggression. The call to jihād is a call to be willing to make the ultimate sacrifice for the sake of higher principles: the worship of God and the defense of the vulnerable.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of jihād is one of the most misunderstood aspects of Islam. In modern discourse, extremist groups have distorted it to justify terrorism and aggression, a definition rejected by the overwhelming majority of scholars. Mainstream Islamic thought has focused on reclaiming the broader meaning of jihād, emphasizing the primacy of the spiritual and social struggles. The concept of a “just war,” with clear ethical criteria for engagement, is found in many traditions, such as the Just War Theory in Christianity.

Practical Reflection & Application

The greatest jihād is a daily one. It is the struggle to get out of bed for the dawn prayer, the struggle to control one’s temper, the struggle to be honest in business, the struggle to speak out against injustice, and the struggle to overcome our own laziness and selfishness. Viewing these daily challenges as acts of jihād imbues them with spiritual significance and gives us the strength to persevere in our efforts to be better servants of God.

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33. Kalālah (كَلَالَة) – A Person with No Ascendants or Descendants

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Kalālah derives from the root ك-ل-ل (Kāf-Lām-Lām), which means to be tired, to be weak, or to be distant. In the context of lineage, Kalālah refers to a person who has died leaving behind no direct descendants (children or grandchildren) and no direct ascendants (parents or grandparents). Their heirs are therefore “distant” or collateral relatives, such as siblings. The term encapsulates the idea of a lineage that is “cut off” at both ends.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

The rules for the inheritance of a person who is kalālah are mentioned twice in Surah An-Nisa, at the beginning (4:12) and in the very last verse of the Surah (4:176). The first verse deals with the case where the only heirs are uterine siblings (sharing the same mother but different fathers). The last verse, which was one of the final verses of the Qur’an to be revealed, clarifies the inheritance rules for full or consanguine siblings (sharing the same father). Classical jurists have meticulously detailed these specific rulings, considering them a crucial part of the Islamic science of inheritance (‘ilm al-farā’iḍ).

Thematic Context

The specific legislation for kalālah underscores the comprehensive and meticulous nature of the Quranic theme of economic justice within the family. By providing clear guidance even for this less common, more complex inheritance scenario, the Qur’an ensures that no situation is left to dispute or the unjust customs of the past. It protects the rights of collateral relatives and ensures that wealth is distributed fairly, reinforcing the bonds of the extended family.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The kalālah verses are a prime example of the detailed legal content of the Qur’an, studied by legal historians and comparative law scholars. In an era where family structures are changing, these laws provide a framework for understanding Islamic perspectives on the rights and responsibilities of the extended family. They stand in contrast to modern Western legal systems, which typically prioritize the nuclear family and give almost complete testamentary freedom to the individual, often leading to collateral relatives being disinherited.

Practical Reflection & Application

For most people, the specific rules of kalālah may not be directly applicable to their own situation. However, studying them instills a deep appreciation for the thoroughness and wisdom of the divine law. It is a reminder that Islam provides guidance for all of life’s contingencies and that there is a divinely ordained system of justice designed to preserve harmony and prevent disputes within the family, especially during the difficult time after a loved one’s death.

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34. Khawf (خَوْف) – Fear

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Khawf comes from the root خ-و-ف (Khā’-Wāw-Fā’), which simply means to be afraid, to fear. In the Qur’an, this term is used in multiple ways. It can refer to the natural human fear of danger, harm, or loss. It can also refer to a specific type of spiritual fear: the awe-filled fear of God’s majesty and justice, which is a commendable quality of a believer.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, khawf appears in the context of the “Prayer of Fear” (Ṣalāt al-Khawf) in verse 4:101-102. Here, it refers to the very real and immediate fear of being attacked by an enemy during battle. The verse provides a detailed concession, allowing the believers to alter the format of their prayer to maintain security while still fulfilling their duty to worship. Classical jurists have derived specific procedures for this prayer based on this verse and the practice of the Prophet.

Thematic Context

The legislation of the Prayer of Fear connects to the broader Quranic theme that the worship of God is paramount in all circumstances, but that the religion is also inherently practical and provides ease. The connection to God through prayer is presented as a source of strength and discipline, especially in times of greatest peril. It demonstrates that faith is not reserved for times of peace but is a vital tool for navigating life’s most intense challenges and fears.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of Ṣalāt al-Khawf is a powerful symbol for Muslims today, even for those not in physical combat. It is seen as a metaphor for maintaining one’s spiritual connection and moral principles even when under immense pressure, stress, or “fear” in a modern context (e.g., fear of losing a job for upholding ethical standards). It teaches that one’s core duties to God should never be abandoned, but the method of fulfilling them can be adapted to the reality of one’s situation.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept encourages us to analyze our own fears. While natural fear is a survival mechanism, we must not let it paralyze us or cause us to abandon our principles. The Prayer of Fear teaches a profound lesson: even when facing our greatest fears, the most powerful response is to turn towards God. Maintaining our spiritual connection in times of crisis is not an escape from reality, but the ultimate source of courage, focus, and resilience needed to overcome it.

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35. Khayr (خَيْر) – Good

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Khayr comes from the root خ-ي-ر (Khā’-Yā’-Rā’), which means to choose or to select. From this, khayr derives its meaning as good, goodness, or wealth, because goodness is that which is chosen or preferred, and wealth is a form of good that people seek. It is a comprehensive term for all that is beneficial, virtuous, and desirable, both materially and spiritually.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, khayr is used frequently to describe positive outcomes and virtuous actions. For instance, in 4:128, concerning marital disputes, it says, “and reconciliation is best (khayr).” In 4:114, it states that there is “no good (khayr) in much of their private conversation, except for he who enjoins charity or what is right or reconciliation between people.” Classical scholars understand khayr to be the objective good as defined by God, not by subjective human desires. True good is that which leads to God’s pleasure.

Thematic Context

The theme of khayr is central to the Surah’s purpose as a moral and ethical guide. The Surah is a roadmap that clearly identifies what constitutes “good”—justice, charity, reconciliation, kindness—and what constitutes evil. It aims to cultivate a community that is actively engaged in the pursuit and promotion of khayr in all its forms, thereby creating a righteous and prosperous society.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of “the Good” is a central question in all philosophical and religious traditions. The Islamic concept of khayr is rooted in the divine will; what is good is what God has declared to be good. This provides an objective anchor for morality. Modern Islamic thinkers emphasize that this divine good is not arbitrary; it is always aligned with true human flourishing and well-being (maṣlaḥah). The pursuit of khayr is therefore the pursuit of what is genuinely best for humanity.

Practical Reflection & Application

The principle of khayr encourages us to be agents of goodness in the world. In any situation, we can ask ourselves, “What is the most beneficial and virtuous course of action here? How can I bring about the most khayr?” This applies to our choice of words, our financial decisions, and how we spend our time. It is a call to be a source of benefit to others, knowing that any good we put into the world will ultimately return to us.

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36. Kitāb (كِتَاب) – Book / Scripture

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Kitāb comes from the root ك-ت-ب (Kāf-Tā’-Bā’), which means to write, to prescribe, or to decree. A kitāb is a book, a scripture, or something that has been written or decreed. It can refer to the Qur’an, previous scriptures, or the divine decree that is “written” with God.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, Kitāb is used in multiple senses. It refers to the Qur’an itself, which contains God’s guidance. It refers to the previous scriptures given to the “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitāb). It is also used to mean something divinely decreed, as in 4:103, “prayer has been decreed upon the believers a decree of specified times (kitāban mawqūtā).” The classical understanding is that God’s guidance for humanity is codified and preserved in His revealed Books.

Thematic Context

The theme of the Kitāb is foundational to the Surah’s emphasis on divinely revealed law as the basis for society. The detailed laws of inheritance, marriage, and justice are not products of human reason alone; they are derived from the divine “Book.” This establishes a society where the ultimate reference point and constitution is the word of God, ensuring a stable and transcendent source of law and morality that is not subject to the whims of human beings.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of a “religion of the Book” is a defining characteristic of the Abrahamic faiths. In modern academic discourse, the study of how these scriptures have been interpreted and applied throughout history is a major field. For Muslims, the belief in the Kitāb (the Qur’an) as the final, uncorrupted, and literal word of God is a central and defining article of faith, distinguishing it from the scriptures of other traditions, which are also believed to be of divine origin but to have undergone human alteration over time.

Practical Reflection & Application

Our relationship with the Kitāb of Allah should be one of deep reverence, study, and application. It is not a book to be left on a shelf but a living guide to be recited, understood, reflected upon, and implemented in our daily lives. The practical application is to dedicate a portion of each day to the Qur’an, seeking in its pages guidance for our challenges, comfort for our hearts, and light for our path.

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37. Kufr (كُفْر) – Disbelief / Ingratitude

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Kufr comes from the root ك-ف-ر (Kāf-Fā’-Rā’). The original, physical meaning of this root is to cover or to conceal. A farmer is sometimes called a kāfir in classical Arabic because he “covers” the seed with soil. From this, kufr developed its two primary theological meanings: 1) Disbelief, which is to cover or conceal the innate truth of God’s existence that is present in every human heart (fiṭrah). 2) Ingratitude, which is to cover or deny the blessings of God, failing to acknowledge Him as their source. The two meanings are deeply intertwined.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa frequently contrasts īmān (faith) with kufr. It identifies several forms of kufr, including the outright rejection of God and His messengers (4:136), showing ingratitude for God’s favors by being stingy (4:37), and believing in some prophets while rejecting others (4:150-151), which is described as “true disbelief.” Classical scholars explain that kufr is not merely a lack of belief; it is an active rejection and denial of manifest truth.

Thematic Context

The theme of kufr serves as the primary antithesis to faith, highlighting the path that leads to divine displeasure and punishment. In the context of the Surah’s call for social justice, kufr is not just a theological stance but a behavioral one. The miser who conceals God’s bounty is a kafūr (ungrateful). The one who rejects God’s just laws of inheritance is engaging in an act of kufr. The Surah shows that disbelief of the heart inevitably manifests as injustice and corruption in one’s actions.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In contemporary interfaith dialogue, the term kufr (and its agent noun kāfir) can be contentious. It is important to understand its precise Quranic meaning. It is not a simple synonym for “non-Muslim” but refers to an active state of rejection or hostile denial of truth. Modern scholars emphasize the distinction between those who have never received the message of Islam clearly (and therefore cannot be said to be rejecting it) and those who consciously and arrogantly deny it after understanding it. The concept of “covering the truth” resonates with philosophical ideas of “bad faith” or willful ignorance.

Practical Reflection & Application

The dual meaning of kufr provides a rich field for self-reflection. On one level, we must safeguard our core beliefs. On another, we must constantly be aware of “kufr of blessings” (kufr al-ni‘mah). This means cultivating a state of active gratitude for everything we have, from our health to our families to our faith itself. Acknowledging God’s blessings and using them in ways that please Him is the practical antidote to both forms of kufr.

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38. La‘nah (لَعْنَة) – Curse

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term La‘nah comes from the root ل-ع-ن (Lām-‘Ayn-Nūn), which means to drive away or to expel. A la‘nah from God is a “curse” in the sense that it signifies being driven far away from His mercy and grace. It is a state of spiritual expulsion and deprivation of divine favor, which is the ultimate punishment.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, God’s la‘nah is mentioned as the consequence for several major sins. Those who disbelieve after having been given the Book are subject to this curse (4:47). Iblis (Satan) is described as one whom “Allah has cursed” (4:118). Most severely, the one who intentionally kills a believer is promised not only Hell, but also the wrath and the curse of God (4:93). Classical scholars understood this to be one of the most severe threats in the Qur’an, indicating the utter gravity of these specific sins.

Thematic Context

The theme of God’s curse serves as a powerful deterrent against the most heinous sins. It highlights the reality of divine justice and the severe spiritual consequences of certain actions. It is the polar opposite of receiving God’s mercy (raḥmah) and bounty (faḍl). The Surah thus presents a stark choice: a path of obedience that leads to nearness to God’s mercy, or a path of rebellion that leads to being expelled far from it.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of a “divine curse” is found in many religious traditions, often associated with breaking a covenant or committing a grave transgression. In modern sensibilities, the idea of a curse can seem harsh. However, from a theological perspective, it is not an arbitrary act of a wrathful deity, but the natural and just consequence of a creature willfully severing its relationship with the source of all good and mercy. It is a state of being that one chooses for oneself through one’s actions.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on the concept of la‘nah should not lead to despair, but to a profound sense of caution and a heightened desire for God’s mercy. It should motivate us to flee from the major sins that are explicitly mentioned as invoking this state, such as murder, disbelief, and associating with the work of Satan. The practical application is to constantly seek refuge in God’s mercy and to live a life that invites His blessings, not His curse.

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39. Ma Malakat Aymānukum (مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُكُمْ) – Those Whom Your Right Hands Possess

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is an established Quranic idiom. Ma (مَا) means “what” or “those whom.” Malakat (مَلَكَتْ) comes from the root م-ل-ك (Mīm-Lām-Kāf), meaning to own or possess. Aymānukum (أَيْمَانُكُمْ) is the plural of yamīn, meaning “right hand,” which was idiomatically associated with oaths, power, and ownership. The full phrase literally means “what your right hands own.” In its historical context, it referred to captives of legitimate warfare or slaves who were owned through legally recognized means.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, this phrase appears in contexts of marriage (e.g., 4:3, 4:24) as a category of women with whom sexual relations are permissible, and in the context of exhortations to good treatment (4:36). Classical commentators and jurists understood these verses within the existing 7th-century social framework of slavery, which was a global institution. However, they highlighted that the Qur’an and the Prophet’s teachings consistently narrowed the avenues for enslavement (limiting it to just warfare) and massively expanded the avenues for manumission, while demanding kind and humane treatment.

Thematic Context

The inclusion of this category within the Surah’s legal framework connects to the theme of social realism and gradual reform. The Qur’an did not abolish the deeply entrenched institution of slavery overnight, which would have caused massive social and economic dislocation. Instead, it regulated it, humanized it, and laid the spiritual and ethical groundwork for its eventual withering away by encouraging freeing slaves as an act of piety and atonement for sins. The command in 4:36 to treat them with kindness, alongside parents and orphans, was a revolutionary step in elevating their status.

Modern & Comparative Lens

This is one of the most challenging topics for modern readers of the Qur’an. The consensus among the vast majority of contemporary Muslim scholars is that the institution of slavery as it existed historically is categorically prohibited and ethically indefensible according to the higher objectives (maqāṣid) of the Shari’ah, which include freedom and justice. The historical verses are seen as being context-specific regulations for an institution that no longer exists and cannot be legitimately revived. The underlying ethical principle of compassionate and just treatment of the vulnerable, however, remains timeless.

Practical Reflection & Application

While the specific legal category is no longer applicable, the ethical spirit of the verses that command kindness to “those whom your right hands possess” can be applied today to our relationships with those who are in positions of vulnerability relative to us. This includes domestic workers, employees, refugees, and anyone under our care or authority. The principle is to treat them with the utmost dignity, justice, and compassion, ensuring their rights are fulfilled and they are protected from exploitation.

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40. Mahr (مَهْر) – Dower

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Mahr comes from a root that signifies a payment or a gift given on the occasion of marriage. While the Qur’an in Surah An-Nisa uses the term Ṣadaqāt for the dower, mahr is the most common term used in the Hadith and in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). Both terms refer to the same obligatory payment from the husband to the wife which is a condition for the validity of the marriage.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

The concept of the mahr is commanded in Surah An-Nisa 4:4, under the name ṣadaqātihinna (“their dowers”). Classical jurists have extensively discussed the laws of the mahr, establishing that it is the exclusive right of the wife. There is no minimum or maximum amount specified in the Qur’an, but it should be a reasonable amount agreed upon by both parties. It can be paid upfront, deferred, or a combination of both, and it can be in the form of money, property, or even a non-material benefit like teaching the wife a portion of the Qur’an.

Thematic Context

The institution of the mahr is a cornerstone of the Surah’s theme of honoring women and securing their financial rights. It is a practical demonstration of the husband’s commitment and responsibility. Unlike a “bride price,” it is paid to the woman herself, not her family, giving her independent financial standing from the beginning of the marriage. The Qur’an is strict about the husband’s duty to pay it, forbidding him from taking it back except in very specific circumstances (4:20-21).

Modern & Comparative Lens

The practice of mahr continues to be a vital part of Muslim marriages worldwide. In modern contexts, it often serves as a form of financial security for the wife. There are cultural debates about the appropriate amount, with some scholars warning against the practice of demanding exorbitant dowers, as this can become a barrier to marriage and contradicts the spirit of the institution as a sincere gift (niḥlah). The Islamic mahr is distinct from the cultural practice of a dowry, where the bride’s family pays the groom’s family.

Practical Reflection & Application

The mahr should be approached with the sincere intention that the Qur’an outlines. For the man, it is a chance to show generosity and commitment. For the woman’s family, it is a time to be reasonable and facilitate the marriage rather than hinder it. The focus should be on the spirit of the mahr as a symbol of honor and the foundation of a new life together, rather than as a purely commercial transaction.

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41. Mawārīth (مَوَارِيث) – Inheritance

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Mawārīth is the plural of mīrāth, which comes from the root و-ر-ث (Wāw-Rā’-Thā’). This root means to inherit. The science of inheritance in Islamic law is known as ‘Ilm al-Mawārīth or ‘Ilm al-Farā’iḍ. It is the body of knowledge and rules governing the transfer of property and assets after a person’s death.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa contains the most detailed and foundational verses on the laws of inheritance (mawārīth) in the entire Qur’an (specifically 4:11-12 and 4:176). These verses meticulously outline the fixed shares for various heirs, including parents, children, spouses, and siblings. Classical commentators have noted the revolutionary nature of these laws, which, for the first time, guaranteed inheritance shares for women, who were previously disinherited in pre-Islamic Arabia. The Prophet himself is reported to have highly encouraged the learning of these laws, calling it “half of all knowledge.”

Thematic Context

The theme of mawārīth is a primary expression of the Surah’s commitment to economic justice and family stability. By providing a clear, divinely-ordained system for wealth distribution, these laws aim to prevent the disputes, greed, and injustice that so often tear families apart after a death. The system ensures that wealth does not remain concentrated in a few hands but is distributed among a wider circle of relatives, strengthening the extended family unit.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Islamic law of inheritance is a complex and sophisticated system that has been the subject of much academic study. One of the frequent points of modern debate is the rule that, in some cases, a male heir receives twice the share of a female heir of the same degree (e.g., son and daughter). The traditional explanation is that this is balanced by the fact that the man is legally obligated to be the sole financial provider for the family (as qawwām), while the woman’s inheritance is hers alone, with no obligation to spend it on the family. Contemporary scholars debate how these principles apply in modern economic realities where women are often co-providers.

Practical Reflection & Application

The laws of mawārīth are a powerful reminder of our mortality and our responsibility to leave our affairs in order. It is a practical duty for Muslims to learn the basics of these laws and to ensure that their estates will be distributed according to these divine injunctions. This is an act of obedience to God that ensures justice for our loved ones and prevents conflict after we are gone.

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42. Millah (مِلَّة) – Creed / Religion

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Millah comes from a root that implies dictation or prescription. It refers to a creed, a religious community, or a prescribed way of life, particularly one that is associated with a specific prophet or a people. While similar to dīn, millah often emphasizes the social and communal dimension of a religion, the path followed by a particular faith community.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:125, Allah praises the one who “follows the religion (millah) of Abraham, the upright monotheist (ḥanīfan).” Here, millah refers to the specific creed and path of Abraham, which is presented as the ideal model of faith. Classical scholars explain that the Millah of Abraham is the foundation upon which the later revelations to Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad were built. It is the creed of pure, unadulterated monotheism and submission.

Thematic Context

The concept of millah is thematically tied to the Surah’s project of defining the identity of the Muslim community. By instructing the believers to follow the Millah of Abraham, the Qur’an gives them a deep sense of historical and spiritual rootedness. It positions them not as followers of a new religion, but as the true heirs and restorers of the ancient, primordial faith of the first patriarch, thus defining their identity in relation to other religious communities.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The term millah has historical significance in the context of the Ottoman Empire, where the “millet system” was used to organize non-Muslim communities (like Orthodox Christians and Jews) into autonomous administrative units, each governed by its own religious laws. In modern discourse, the call to the Millah of Abraham is often used to promote a more inclusive and ecumenical understanding of the Abrahamic faiths, highlighting their shared heritage and monotheistic creed.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on the Millah of Abraham encourages us to focus on the essentials of our faith. Abraham’s path was one of absolute trust in God, willingness to sacrifice, and a commitment to pure monotheism above all else. The practical application is to model our faith on these foundational principles, ensuring that our own religious identity is built upon this solid, prophetic foundation of sincere and uncompromising submission to the One God.

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43. Mīthāqan Ghalīẓā (مِيثَاقًا غَلِيظًا) – A Solemn Covenant

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is a descriptive phrase. Mīthāq (مِيثَاق) comes from the root و-ث-ق (Wāw-Thā’-Qāf), which means to trust, to be sure, or to bind. A mīthāq is a pact, a covenant, or a solemn agreement that is binding on all parties. Ghalīẓā (غَلِيظًا) comes from the root غ-ل-ظ (Ghayn-Lām-Ẓā’), meaning to be thick, heavy, strong, or severe. Thus, Mīthāqan Ghalīẓā means a heavy, strong, and solemn covenant; it is a pact of the utmost seriousness and importance.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:21), this powerful term is used to describe the marriage contract. After warning against wrongfully taking back the dower (mahr) from a wife, the Qur’an asks, “How could you take it when you have entered into each other, and they have taken from you a solemn covenant?” The classical exegetes were struck by the Qur’an’s use of such a weighty term—elsewhere used for the covenants between God and the prophets—to describe the marital bond. This elevates the marriage contract from a simple civil agreement to a sacred, binding pact.

Thematic Context

This concept is central to the Surah’s theme of sanctifying the family unit and protecting the rights of women. By defining marriage as a Mīthāqan Ghalīẓā, the Qur’an impresses upon the husband the immense gravity of the responsibilities he has undertaken. It is a solemn promise, witnessed by God, to protect, honor, and provide for his wife justly. Violating this covenant, for example by mistreating her or usurping her financial rights, is not just a breach of contract but a betrayal of a sacred trust.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern discussions on Islamic marriage, this term is frequently invoked to counter purely patriarchal or trivial views of the marital relationship. It emphasizes that marriage is a serious partnership built on mutual trust and responsibility. Family counselors and scholars use this concept to remind couples of the sanctity of their bond. Comparatively, while many traditions view marriage as a sacrament or a covenant, the specific and powerful terminology of Mīthāqan Ghalīẓā in the foundational text of the Qur’an gives it a unique and profound legal and spiritual weight in Islam.

Practical Reflection & Application

Anyone who is married or considering marriage should reflect deeply on this term. It transforms the perspective on marriage from one of personal fulfillment to one of sacred duty. It means viewing one’s spouse not as a possession but as a partner in a solemn pact before God. It encourages patience in times of difficulty and gratitude in times of ease, recognizing that the bond one has entered into is “heavy” with meaning and responsibility, and is therefore not to be taken lightly or broken easily.

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44. Mu’min (مُؤْمِن) – Believer

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Mu’min is the active participle from the root أ-م-ن (Alif-Mīm-Nūn), which means safety, security, and trustworthiness. A mu’min is therefore “one who believes,” but the etymology implies much more. A mu’min is one who has placed their trust in God and has thus attained true inner security (amn). Furthermore, a mu’min is one who is trustworthy and from whom other people are safe. God Himself is Al-Mu’min, The Giver of Security.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa is replete with verses addressing the mu’minīn (believers). The Surah clearly defines a mu’min not just by their profession of faith, but by their actions. A true mu’min is one who obeys God and His Messenger (4:59), who accepts the Prophet’s judgment (4:65), who fights for the oppressed (4:75), and who treats others with justice and kindness. The Surah constantly contrasts the sincere mu’min with the hypocritical munāfiq, showing that the title of “believer” must be earned through conviction and consistent action.

Thematic Context

The identity of the mu’min is the central subject of the Surah’s community-building project. The Surah is essentially a divine manual for what it means to be a believer and how believers should interact to form a just and compassionate society. It outlines the rights, responsibilities, and character traits of the ideal mu’min, making this the core identity that should transcend all other tribal, ethnic, or familial affiliations.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern Islamic discourse, there is often a distinction made between a “Muslim” (one who submits outwardly to the religion) and a “mu’min” (one who has true, internalized faith). The Qur’an itself makes this distinction in some places. This highlights that faith is a spectrum, and the goal is to move from a state of nominal submission to a state of deep, heartfelt conviction that transforms one’s entire being. The idea of faith as a transformative state of being, rather than just a label, is common to all major religious traditions.

Practical Reflection & Application

The concept of the mu’min serves as an ideal to aspire to. It challenges us to move beyond a merely cultural or inherited Islam to a lived, conscious faith. We can ask ourselves: “Do my actions reflect the character of a true believer as described in the Qur’an? Am I a source of security and trust for those around me? Is my heart truly secure in its trust in God?” This self-assessment is key to the journey of becoming a true mu’min.

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45. Muḥājir (مُهَاجِر) – Emigrant

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Muhājir is the active participle from the same root as Hijrah: ه-ج-ر (Hā’-Jīm-Rā’), which means to depart or abandon. A muhājir is therefore one who emigrates, specifically one who leaves their home and possessions behind for the sake of God. The term is most famously used for the early Muslims who migrated from Mecca to Medina to escape persecution and establish the first Islamic state.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:100), the Qur’an speaks of the immense reward for the one who “emigrates in the cause of Allah” (yuhājir fī sabīlillāh). It promises that such a person will find abundant refuge and that if death overtakes them on their journey, their reward is guaranteed with God. Classical scholars have interpreted this as a powerful incentive, showing that the intention and the act of striving for God’s cause are rewarded, even if the ultimate goal is not reached in this life.

Thematic Context

The figure of the muhājir is a key archetype in the Surah’s narrative of sacrifice and commitment. The Muhājirūn (emigrants) represented the vanguard of the community, those whose faith was so strong that they were willing to give up everything familiar and comfortable for the sake of their religion. They are presented as a model of true conviction, demonstrating through their actions that their loyalty to God superseded their loyalty to tribe, home, and worldly possessions.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The experience of the muhājir continues to be a reality for millions of refugees and asylum seekers, many of whom are fleeing religious or political persecution. The Quranic verses on this topic provide a source of solace and hope for them. Furthermore, the spiritual dimension of being a muhājir is emphasized in modern Islamic spirituality: the idea of being an “emigrant” from sin towards piety, constantly on a journey away from what displeases God and towards what pleases Him.

Practical Reflection & Application

We are all on a journey to God, and in that sense, we are all spiritual emigrants. This world is a temporary abode, not our final destination. The ideal of the muhājir encourages us to hold lightly to the things of this world and to be willing to “abandon” anything—a habit, a relationship, a comfort—that holds us back from our journey to Allah. It is a call to cultivate the heart of a traveler, whose gaze is always fixed on the ultimate destination.

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46. Muḥṣanāt (مُحْصَنَات) – Chaste Women / Married Women

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Muḥṣanāt comes from the root ح-ص-ن (Ḥā’-Ṣād-Nūn), which means to be fortified, protected, or inaccessible. A ḥiṣn is a fortress. From this root, the word muḥṣanah acquires several related meanings. It can mean: 1) A chaste woman, whose virtue is a fortress. 2) A free woman, as opposed to a slave, who is protected by her legal status. 3) A married woman, who is “fortified” and protected by her husband and the marriage contract.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the term is used in multiple ways. In 4:24, “forbidden to you are… women already married (al-muḥṣanāt min an-nisā’).” Here, it clearly means married women. In 4:25, it refers to believing slave women who are chaste, and also to the punishment for lewdness being half that for “the free, married women (al-muḥṣanāt),” where the word carries the dual meaning of being both free and married. The context determines the specific shade of meaning.

Thematic Context

The concept of iḥṣān (fortification/chastity) is central to the Surah’s theme of establishing a society based on sexual morality and the sanctity of marriage. The prohibitions against marrying muḥṣanāt (already married women) and the rules regarding sexual conduct are designed to protect lineages, prevent social chaos, and preserve the honor and dignity of women. By legally “fortifying” women through marriage and the requirement of chastity, the law aims to create a stable and secure family structure.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern discourse, the emphasis on female chastity can be a point of discussion. The Islamic perspective, however, is that the high value placed on the chastity of muḥṣanāt is not meant to be a burden on women, but a mechanism to protect their honor and the integrity of the family. The Qur’an equally demands chastity from men. The concept of being “fortified” by marriage is seen as a beautiful metaphor for the security, protection, and mutual guarding of virtue that a healthy marriage should provide for both partners.

Practical Reflection & Application

The ideal of being a muḥṣan or muḥṣanah encourages both men and women to view their sexuality as a precious trust from God, to be protected and expressed only within the sacred bond of marriage. It is a call to build a “fortress” of modesty and integrity around oneself, not out of fear or repression, but out of a sense of self-worth and devotion to God’s commands. It promotes a life of dignity and protects one from the emotional and social harms of illicit relationships.

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47. Mulk (مُلْك) – Sovereignty / Dominion

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Mulk comes from the root م-ل-ك (Mīm-Lām-Kāf), which means to own, to possess, or to rule. Mulk signifies ownership, dominion, sovereignty, and kingdom. It refers to the ultimate authority and power over something. In the Qur’an, true and absolute mulk belongs only to God.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:54, the Qur’an mentions that God had given the family of Abraham “a great kingdom (mulkan ‘aẓīmā).” This refers to the worldly authority and prophetic lineage granted to them. However, verse 4:53 challenges those who are arrogant by asking if they have a share in the dominion (mulk), stating that if they did, their stinginess would prevent them from giving anyone even the speck on a date-stone. The classical interpretation is that all worldly power is a temporary trust from God; absolute, eternal sovereignty belongs to Him alone.

Thematic Context

The theme of God’s mulk is a cornerstone of the Quranic doctrine of Tawḥīd (monotheism). It establishes that God is not just the Creator but also the absolute Sovereign who has the sole right to command and legislate for His creation. All the laws and commands in Surah An-Nisa are an expression of this divine sovereignty. Humans, even kings and rulers, are not owners of the world but merely stewards (khalīfah) within God’s dominion.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of divine sovereignty is a foundational theological principle with major political implications. In modern Islamic political thought, it has been used to argue that any human political system must ultimately derive its legitimacy from acknowledging God’s ultimate sovereignty. This stands in contrast to the modern Western political concept of popular sovereignty, where ultimate authority resides with “the people.” The Islamic concept insists that the people’s authority is delegated and must be exercised within the bounds of divine law.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on God’s absolute mulk is a powerful exercise in humility. It reminds us that everything we think we “own”—our wealth, our talents, our very lives—is not truly ours but belongs to God. We are merely trustees. This perspective liberates us from the anxiety of ownership and the arrogance of power. It encourages us to use the resources and authority we have been given in a way that is pleasing to the true Owner of all dominion.

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48. Munāfiqīn (مُنَافِقُون) – The Hypocrites

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Munāfiqīn (singular: munāfiq) comes from the root ن-ف-ق (Nūn-Fā’-Qāf). This root has two interesting meanings: “to pass through a tunnel” (nifāq) and “to be spent or consumed.” A desert rodent called the jerboa has a burrow (nāfiqā’) with two openings; it enters one and exits the other. A hypocrite is so-named because he enters Islam through one door and exits it through another; he has two faces. He professes faith publicly while concealing disbelief privately.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa contains one of the most extensive and detailed critiques of the Munāfiqīn in the entire Qur’an. They are described as a group within the Medinan community who professed Islam outwardly but were inwardly allied with the enemies of the Muslims. Their characteristics are detailed: they are hesitant and wavering (4:143), they mock the believers, they seek to deceive God (4:142), and they avoid making any real sacrifice for the community. The Surah declares that they will be in the “lowest depth of the Fire” (4:145).

Thematic Context

The theme of hypocrisy is crucial to the Surah’s focus on community consolidation and purification. The early Muslim community in Medina was not monolithic; it faced internal threats as well as external ones. The Munāfiqīn represented the most dangerous internal threat, sowing discord, spreading rumors, and demoralizing the believers. By exposing their psychology and tactics, the Qur’an inoculates the community against their influence and clarifies the distinction between true, sacrificial faith and its superficial, self-serving imitation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Quranic discourse on the Munāfiqīn serves as a timeless psychological and sociological analysis of hypocrisy. Modern thinkers see it not just as a historical phenomenon but as a perpetual human archetype. The munāfiq is the person whose private convictions do not align with their public persona, a condition relevant in politics, business, and personal life. The Quranic critique is a call for authenticity and integrity, urging a seamless harmony between one’s inner state (bāṭin) and outer actions (ẓāhir).

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on the description of the Munāfiqīn is a sobering exercise in self-examination. It compels us to ask difficult questions: Is my faith just a social identity, or does it stem from a deep inner conviction? Do I act one way among believers and another way elsewhere? Do I seek to serve God and the community, or am I primarily motivated by personal gain and the approval of others? The goal is to purify one’s intentions (niyyah) and strive for complete sincerity (ikhlāṣ) in all aspects of life.

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49. Nabī (نَبِيّ) – Prophet

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Nabī (plural: Anbiyā’) comes from the root ن-ب-أ (Nūn-Bā’-Alif), which means “a report, news, or announcement.” A Nabī is therefore one who brings divine news or tidings from God to humanity. He is an informant of the unseen. There is also a possible secondary link to a root meaning “to be elevated,” signifying the high station of a prophet. While often used interchangeably with Rasūl (Messenger), a subtle distinction is sometimes made: a Rasūl is a Nabī who brings a new legal code (sharī‘ah), while a Nabī may uphold the law of a previous messenger.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the status and role of the Prophet Muhammad (and by extension, all prophets) is a central theme. Verse 4:80 states, “He who obeys the Messenger has indeed obeyed Allah.” Classical exegetes interpret this to mean that obedience to the Prophet in the matters he legislates and commands is not optional; it is a direct extension of obedience to God Himself. The Surah also emphasizes belief in all prophets without distinction as a pillar of faith (4:136, 4:150), reinforcing the unity of the divine message throughout history.

Thematic Context

The concept of the Nabī is foundational to the Quranic theme of divine guidance and authority. Since God does not speak directly to all of humanity, He chooses prophets as intermediaries to deliver His message and serve as practical exemplars. Surah An-Nisa establishes that the community’s legal and moral order is derived from this prophetic authority. Accepting the ḥukm (judgment) of the Prophet (4:65) is presented as the ultimate proof of true faith (īmān).

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern discussions often focus on the nature of prophetic authority, particularly the authority of the Prophet Muhammad’s Sunnah (his teachings and practices) as a source of law alongside the Qur’an. The principle of prophethood (nubuwwah) is a defining feature of the Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), which are all “religions of the book” revealed through prophetic figures. The Islamic conception emphasizes the finality of Muhammad’s prophethood, sealing the line of messengers sent to guide humanity.

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding the role of the Nabī cultivates a deep love and respect for the Prophet Muhammad. It inspires one to study his life (sīrah) and his teachings (sunnah) as the practical embodiment of the Qur’an’s message. The application is to strive to emulate his character—his justice, compassion, integrity, and devotion—in one’s own life, seeing him as the ultimate role model for what it means to be a complete human being submitted to God.

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50. Nafs (نَفْس) – Soul / Self

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Nafs comes from the root ن-ف-س (Nūn-Fā’-Sīn), which carries meanings of breath, soul, self, or psyche. It is a comprehensive term for the essence of a person, their consciousness, and their inner self. The Qur’an uses it to refer to a single person or soul (“He created you from a single soul (nafsin wāḥidatin),” 4:1) and also to the inner self that is the locus of desires and moral struggle.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the nafs is mentioned as the entity that can be wronged (“whoever does evil or wrongs his own soul (nafsah),” 4:110). It is also the subject of God’s perfect knowledge (“Allah knows what is within your souls (anfusikum),” 4:29). Classical Islamic psychology, based on the Qur’an, often speaks of the nafs in three states: the soul that commands evil (al-nafs al-ammārah bi-s-sū’), the self-reproaching soul (al-nafs al-lawwāmah), and the soul at peace (al-nafs al-muṭma’innah).

Thematic Context

The concept of the nafs is central to the theme of individual accountability and spiritual purification. The Surah’s moral and legal commands are addressed to the individual soul, which has been given free will to choose between obedience and disobedience. The path of righteousness is presented as a struggle against the lower inclinations of the nafs, with the goal of purifying it and returning it to God in a state of peace.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Quranic concept of the nafs is remarkably resonant with modern psychology’s understanding of the “self” or “psyche.” It is seen as a complex entity with competing drives and a capacity for both great good and great evil. The Islamic spiritual tradition, particularly Sufism, is essentially a sophisticated system of “self-psychology” or “spiritual psychotherapy” aimed at understanding, disciplining, and purifying the nafs (a process called tazkiyat al-nafs).

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding the nature of the nafs is the key to personal growth. The practical application is to engage in a constant process of self-awareness and self-correction (muḥāsabah). This involves observing our inner states, recognizing the pull of our lower desires (for arrogance, greed, envy, etc.), and actively struggling (jihād al-nafs) to overcome them through prayer, remembrance of God, and righteous actions. The goal is to transform the soul from our master into our obedient servant on the path to God.

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51. Nār (نَار) – The Fire

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Nār comes from the root ن-و-ر (Nūn-Wāw-Rā’), which means light, illumination, and fire. While the same root gives us Nūr (light), Nār refers specifically to fire, flame, or blaze. In the Quranic lexicon, An-Nār (The Fire) is one of the most common and evocative names for Hell, used interchangeably with Jahannam. It emphasizes the torment of burning and intense heat.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, An-Nār is consistently presented as the ultimate destination for those who defy God’s limits. Those who unjustly consume the wealth of orphans are said to consume nothing but “fire” into their bellies and will enter a “blazing Fire” (4:10). The hypocrites are promised the “lowest depths of the Fire” (4:145). Classical exegesis understands these descriptions literally, as a real place of physical and spiritual punishment, a just consequence for deliberate and arrogant rebellion against God.

Thematic Context

The theme of An-Nār serves as the ultimate expression of divine justice and accountability. It is the necessary counterpart to the promise of Paradise (Jannah). For justice to be complete, persistent evil must have a consequence just as persistent good has a reward. The vivid imagery of the Fire acts as a powerful moral deterrent, instilling in the believer a profound consciousness of the gravity of sin and the importance of seeking God’s forgiveness.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The imagery of fire as a tool of divine punishment is a powerful archetype found in numerous religious and mythological traditions, including the concept of Gehenna in Judaism and Hell in Christianity. Modern theological discourse may explore the psychological and spiritual dimensions of this imagery—representing the “burning” of remorse or the pain of separation from the divine—but the traditional Islamic view maintains its reality, viewing it as a necessary component of God’s perfect justice.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting upon the reality of the Fire is a means of cultivating taqwā (God-consciousness). It is not meant to create a state of perpetual, paralyzing fear, but a healthy and motivating awe that encourages one to live righteously. Each day, a believer can make a prayer of supplication, asking God for protection from the Fire. This simple act reinforces one’s awareness of the hereafter and strengthens the resolve to avoid the actions that lead to such a dreadful end.

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52. Naṣīb (نَصِيب) – Appointed Share

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Naṣīb comes from the root ن-ص-ب (Nūn-Ṣād-Bā’), which means to set up, to establish, or to appoint. A naṣīb is therefore an appointed portion, a fixed share, or a designated lot. It implies a share that has been specifically allotted to someone by a higher authority, whether it be a share of inheritance, a portion of sin, or a lot of good fortune.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa is often called the “Surah of Shares” because of its detailed legislation on inheritance. The term naṣīb is central to this discussion. Verse 4:7 states, “For men is a share (naṣīb) from what is left by parents and near relatives, and for women is a share (naṣīb).” This was a revolutionary declaration, establishing for the first time the right of women to a fixed, legally protected share of inheritance. The Surah later specifies these shares as a “naṣīban mafrūḍā“—an obligatory, appointed portion (4:7).

Thematic Context

The concept of naṣīb is the primary mechanism for the Surah’s theme of economic justice within the family. By replacing the arbitrary and unjust pre-Islamic system with a divinely appointed system of shares, the Qur’an protects the rights of the most vulnerable family members. It ensures that every individual receives their God-given portion, thereby preventing disputes and fostering economic stability within the family unit.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The principle of an appointed share from God stands in contrast to legal systems that grant full testamentary freedom, where an individual can write a will leaving their property to whomever they choose. The Islamic system limits this freedom (to a one-third bequest), prioritizing the God-given rights of the family. This is seen as a way to safeguard the family unit from the potential whims, prejudices, or neglect of the deceased, ensuring a baseline of economic justice for all primary heirs.

Practical Reflection & Application

Understanding the concept of naṣīb fosters contentment and trust in God’s wisdom. It teaches us that our provision in this life—and our share in the hereafter—is ultimately appointed by God. When it comes to inheritance, it is a powerful reminder to ensure that these divinely appointed shares are distributed with scrupulous honesty and justice, as tampering with them is a direct violation of a divine command.

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53. Nifāq (نِفَاق) – Hypocrisy

Linguistic Root & Etymology

Nifāq is the verbal noun from the root ن-ف-ق (Nūn-Fā’-Qāf), and it means hypocrisy. The root evokes the imagery of a tunnel with two openings or the burrow of a jerboa, symbolizing duplicity, concealment, and a lack of straightforwardness. Nifāq is the state or quality of professing belief while inwardly harboring disbelief, doubt, or malice. It is a disease of the heart.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa provides a masterclass on the anatomy of nifāq. Classical scholars, based on this Surah and others, divided hypocrisy into two types. The first is Nifāq al-I‘tiqādī (Hypocrisy of Belief), which is the major hypocrisy of concealing utter disbelief. This is what the Surah primarily focuses on, and it expels one from the fold of Islam. The second is Nifāq al-‘Amalī (Hypocrisy of Action), which is to exhibit some of the traits of hypocrites (like lying, breaking promises, or showing off in worship) while still possessing a core of faith. This is considered a major sin but does not constitute apostasy.

Thematic Context

The extensive treatment of nifāq is thematically essential for the Surah’s project of building a strong and cohesive community. A community can withstand external enemies, but it can be destroyed from within by mistrust, deceit, and internal sabotage. By unmasking the signs of nifāq, the Qur’an provides the believers with the tools to identify and guard against this internal corrosion, thereby fostering a culture of sincerity (ikhlāṣ) and mutual trust.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of nifāq has profound relevance in modern social psychology. It speaks to the phenomena of cognitive dissonance, virtue signaling, and the disconnect between one’s public and private self. The Quranic cure for nifāq—a call for introspection, repentance, and the sincere alignment of one’s inner state with one’s outer actions—is a timeless recipe for psychological and spiritual integrity. All ethical systems grapple with the problem of hypocrisy, but the Qur’an diagnoses it as a primary spiritual disease with dire otherworldly consequences.

Practical Reflection & Application

The discussion of nifāq serves as a constant, humbling mirror for the believer. It is easy to point fingers at others, but the true benefit lies in looking inward. Do I have traces of practical hypocrisy in my character? Do I say what I do not mean? Do I perform acts of worship with sincerity, or is there an element of showing off? The goal is a lifelong struggle (jihād) against the subtle hypocrisy of the self (nafs) to achieve a state of pure, unadulterated sincerity towards God.

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54. Niḥlah (نِحْلَة) – A Free Gift

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Niḥlah comes from the root ن-ح-ل (Nūn-Ḥā’-Lām), which means to give something freely as a gift, without expecting anything in return. A niḥlah is a pure, unencumbered gift. Interestingly, the word for “bee” (naḥl) comes from the same root, perhaps because the bee gives its honey freely to mankind as a gift inspired by God.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

This specific term is used in a crucial verse in Surah An-Nisa: “And give the women (on marriage) their dower (ṣadaqātihinna) as a free gift (niḥlah)” (4:4). The use of this word is highly significant. Classical commentators have emphasized that this term clarifies the true nature of the dower (mahr). It is not a price being paid for the bride, nor is it a payment to her family. It is a pure, honorable gift given freely from the husband to the wife herself, a token of his sincerity and commitment.

Thematic Context

The concept of niḥlah is central to the Surah’s theme of elevating the status of women and the sanctity of the marriage contract. By defining the dower as a “free gift,” the Qur’an purifies the institution of marriage from any connotations of a commercial transaction. It reframes the dower as an act of honor and generosity, establishing the marital relationship on a foundation of respect and love rather than ownership or financial exchange.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern discussions about the dower, the principle of niḥlah is often highlighted to combat cultural practices that have distorted its purpose. When families demand excessive dowers, treating it as a price for their daughter, or when it becomes a point of boastful competition, they have lost the spirit of the niḥlah. This Quranic concept is a call to return the dower to its original, noble purpose as a sincere and heartfelt gift.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept encourages a spirit of sincere generosity in our most important relationships. The dower is the first financial interaction in a marriage, and the Qur’an commands that it be a beautiful one. The principle of giving freely and happily, without expecting a return, can be extended to all forms of gift-giving. It teaches us to give with a pure heart, seeking only to show honor and affection to the recipient and to please God.

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55. Ni‘mah (نِعْمَة) – Blessing / Favor

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ni‘mah comes from the root ن-ع-م (Nūn-‘Ayn-Mīm), which carries meanings of comfort, ease, pleasure, and goodness. A ni‘mah (plural: ni‘am) is a blessing, a favor, a bounty, or any gift that brings happiness and well-being. It is a comprehensive term for all the good that God bestows upon His creation.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, verse 4:79 speaks of the hypocrites who, if a blessing (ni‘mah, in the form of a good deed’s outcome, hasanah) comes to them, they attribute it to God, but if a hardship strikes, they blame the Prophet. Later, in verse 4:83, they are described as spreading rumors, “But if they had referred it to the Messenger… those of them who can draw correct conclusions would have known it. And if not for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy…” Classical scholars explain that the greatest of all favors (ni‘am) is the favor of divine guidance through the Prophet and the Qur’an, which protects the community from error.

Thematic Context

The theme of ni‘mah connects to the Quranic call for gratitude (shukr) and the recognition of God’s sovereignty. The proper response to receiving a blessing is to recognize its divine source and express gratitude. The Surah shows that a sign of hypocrisy and disbelief (kufr) is to be ungrateful, to conceal God’s blessings (4:37), or to fail to attribute them to Him. Acknowledging God’s favors is a cornerstone of the believer’s worldview.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of divine blessings is universal in theistic religions. The Islamic emphasis is on the all-encompassing nature of these blessings, as the Qur’an states elsewhere, “And if you should count the favors of Allah, you could not enumerate them.” Modern psychological research on well-being has strongly affirmed the benefits of practicing gratitude. The Islamic focus on recognizing God’s ni‘mah is a form of spiritual “gratitude therapy” that fosters contentment, humility, and a positive outlook on life.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical application is to cultivate a “gratitude mindset.” This can be done by consciously taking time each day to reflect on the blessings of God in our lives, from the major (health, family, faith) to the minor (a good meal, a beautiful sunset). This practice of acknowledging ni‘mah shifts our focus from what we lack to what we have, replacing anxiety and envy with contentment and peace.

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56. Nūr (نُور) – Light

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Nūr comes from the root ن-و-ر (Nūn-Wāw-Rā’), which means light, illumination, and to make something clear and manifest. Nūr is light, both in the physical, sensory sense and in the metaphysical, spiritual sense. It is the opposite of darkness (ẓulumāt). God is the ultimate source of all light; one of His names is An-Nūr (The Light).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:174, after describing the Prophet as a “conclusive proof” (burhān), the Qur’an is described as a “clear light (nūran mubīnā) sent down to you.” Classical exegetes interpret this to mean that the Qur’an is the ultimate source of spiritual and moral illumination. It is the light that guides humanity out of the darknesses of ignorance (jāhiliyyah), disbelief (kufr), and injustice (ẓulm) into the clarity of truth and the path of righteousness.

Thematic Context

The theme of nūr is central to the Qur’an’s conception of divine revelation as a source of guidance. The world without revelation is seen as a state of darkness, where humanity stumbles and loses its way. The Qur’an and the prophets are the “lights” that God sends to illuminate the path. The entire project of Surah An-Nisa—establishing just laws and a moral society—is an exercise in bringing the light of revelation to bear on the darkness of human social problems.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The metaphor of light for truth, knowledge, and divinity is a powerful and near-universal archetype, found in traditions from Platonism to Zoroastrianism to the Gospel of John, which describes Jesus as the “light of the world.” The Islamic concept emphasizes the Qur’an itself as the final embodiment of this divine, guiding light. Modern thinkers often speak of the “light of reason” and the “light of revelation” not as opposing forces, but as two complementary sources of illumination given by God.

Practical Reflection & Application

We should actively seek the nūr of the Qur’an in our lives. This means approaching the Qur’an not just as a text to be read, but as a source of light to be absorbed. The practical application is to engage with the Qur’an with the intention of seeking guidance for our specific life situations. When we are in a state of confusion or “darkness” about a decision, we should turn to the Qur’an and the wisdom of the Prophet, praying that God illuminates our hearts and minds with their light.

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57. Nushūz (نُشُوز) – Rebellion / Ill-Conduct

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Nushūz comes from the root ن-ش-ز (Nūn-Shīn-Zāy), which means to rise up, to be elevated, or to be rebellious. A nashaz is a high piece of ground. In the context of human relationships, nushūz means to “rise up” against one’s spouse in defiance of one’s marital responsibilities. It signifies a disruptive act of rebellion, ill-conduct, or desertion that violates the marital covenant.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, nushūz is mentioned in two places. In 4:34, it refers to nushūz on the part of the wife. The verse outlines a three-step remedial process for the husband to follow: admonition, separating from her in bed, and then, as a last resort, a light disciplinary strike (ḍarb). In 4:128, it refers to nushūz on the part of the husband (or his aversion). In this case, the couple is encouraged to seek reconciliation (ṣulḥ) through mutual agreement, which is described as being best.

Thematic Context

The treatment of nushūz is a key part of the Surah’s broader theme of preserving the family unit. The Qur’an does not adopt a simplistic view of marriage but acknowledges that serious conflict can arise. By prescribing a clear, graduated process for resolving conflict, the aim is to salvage the marriage and restore harmony wherever possible. The emphasis is on reconciliation and mediation, with divorce being a final, last-resort option.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The interpretation of nushūz, particularly the third step in 4:34 (ḍarb), is one of the most contentious issues in modern Quranic exegesis. Many contemporary scholars and Muslim feminists argue that any physical discipline is unacceptable and contrary to the Prophet’s own example of never striking a woman. They reinterpret the word ḍarb in this context to mean “to separate” or offer other non-physical interpretations. This ongoing debate reflects the struggle to reconcile the classical understanding with modern ethical sensibilities about domestic violence. The key takeaway, however, remains the Quranic emphasis on measured, remedial action over uncontrolled anger.

Practical Reflection & Application

Regardless of the interpretation of specific steps, the underlying principle of nushūz is about addressing serious marital discord constructively. It teaches a process of communication (admonition), creating space (separation), and seeking resolution before things escalate. The higher principle from 4:128, that “reconciliation is best” (waṣ-ṣulḥu khayr), should be the guiding motto for any couple facing conflict. It encourages proactive, compassionate, and wise conflict resolution.

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58. Qalb (قَلْب) – Heart

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Qalb comes from the root ق-ل-ب (Qāf-Lām-Bā’), which means to turn, to change, or to revolve. The heart is called the qalb because it is in a constant state of “turning” and fluctuation—between faith and doubt, hope and fear, joy and sadness. In the Quranic worldview, the qalb is not merely the physical organ but the seat of understanding, intention, and true belief. It is the spiritual center of a human being.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa speaks of the diseases of the heart. The hypocrites are described as having a “disease in their hearts” (a phrase from other surahs but a concept that permeates this one). God condemns those whose hearts have become hardened and sealed due to their persistent disbelief. Conversely, true faith (īmān) is that which enters and settles in the qalb. The classical understanding is that the spiritual state of the heart is the primary concern of religion; a sound heart leads to sound actions, while a diseased heart leads to corruption.

Thematic Context

The state of the qalb is a crucial underlying theme of the Surah’s focus on sincerity versus hypocrisy. The hypocrite’s problem is that their outward actions do not match the state of their heart. The believer, on the other hand, is one whose heart is aligned with their actions in sincere submission to God. The Surah’s moral teachings are all aimed at purifying the heart from diseases like envy (ḥasad), stinginess (bukhl), and arrogance, and adorning it with virtues like mercy and justice.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of the heart as the center of emotion, consciousness, and spirituality is a near-universal human metaphor, found in countless philosophical and religious traditions. Modern science often localizes consciousness in the brain, but recent research in fields like neurocardiology has explored the complex neural connection and communication between the physical heart and the brain. The Islamic focus on the “purification of the heart” (tazkiyat al-qalb) is a sophisticated spiritual psychology aimed at achieving inner peace and moral integrity.

Practical Reflection & Application

The health of our spiritual heart should be our greatest concern. Just as we monitor our physical health, we should constantly monitor the state of our heart. Am I feeling more arrogant or more humble? More envious or more grateful? The tools for polishing the heart are prescribed in the tradition: the remembrance of God (dhikr), the recitation of the Qur’an, sincere repentance, and good deeds. The goal is to return to God on the Day of Judgment with a “sound heart” (qalbin salīm).

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59. Qarḍan Ḥasanan (قَرْضًا حَسَنًا) – A Goodly Loan

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is a compound phrase. Qarḍan (قَرْضًا) means a loan. Ḥasanan (حَسَنًا) means good or beautiful. The expression Qarḍan Ḥasanan means a “goodly loan” or a “beautiful loan.” In the Quranic context, it is a powerful metaphor for spending in the cause of God, particularly through acts of charity. When a person gives to the needy for God’s sake, it is as if they are giving a loan to God Himself—a loan that God promises to repay manifold.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While this exact phrase is more famous in other surahs, the concept of spending for God’s cause is central to Surah An-Nisa’s critique of stinginess (bukhl) and its praise for those who strive with their wealth (4:95). The concept implies that what is given is not lost; it is a secure and profitable investment. Classical scholars have emphasized the conditions for this “loan”: it must be from lawfully earned wealth, given with a sincere intention (not for show), and without reminding the recipient of the favor.

Thematic Context

The metaphor of the “goodly loan” is a beautiful expression of the Surah’s theme of divine generosity and the value of charity. It completely reframes the act of giving. The giver is not a superior benefactor bestowing a favor upon a lowly recipient. Rather, the giver is the one in need, seeking to make a profitable investment with the ultimate Capital-Holder, God. The poor and needy become the vehicle through which one can “lend” to God. This dignifies the recipient and humbles the giver.

Modern & Comparative Lens

This concept has been a major inspiration for the development of Islamic finance and charitable institutions. The idea of an interest-free loan (qarḍ ḥasan) as an act of charity is a cornerstone of Islamic banking. The metaphor provides a powerful alternative to a purely capitalist view of wealth, framing money not as something to be hoarded or invested only for personal gain, but as a trust to be circulated for the common good, with the ultimate return on investment being divine reward.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept should transform our attitude towards charity. When we give, we should feel that we are the ones gaining, not the ones losing. We are making a secure, guaranteed, and high-yield investment for our hereafter. This perspective encourages a spirit of cheerful and enthusiastic generosity, seeing every opportunity to give as an opportunity to extend a “beautiful loan” to our Creator, who has promised to repay it in the best of ways.

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60. Qatl (قَتْل) – Killing

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Qatl comes from the root ق-ت-ل (Qāf-Tā’-Lām), which means to kill, to slay, or to murder. It is a general term for taking a life. The Qur’an uses it in various contexts, including lawful killing in war or as capital punishment (qiṣāṣ), as well as unlawful killing, which is murder.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa deals extensively with the laws surrounding qatl. It makes a critical distinction between intentional murder (qatl al-‘amd) and unintentional killing or manslaughter (qatl al-khaṭa’). For intentional murder (mentioned in 4:93), the Qur’an warns of a dire punishment in the hereafter: the Wrath of God, His Curse, and an eternal abode in Hellfire. For unintentional killing (4:92), it prescribes a worldly legal process: the freeing of a believing slave and the payment of blood-money (diyah) to the victim’s family, unless they choose to forgive.

Thematic Context

The detailed legislation on qatl is a central part of the Quranic theme of the sanctity of human life. By laying out such severe punishments for murder and a clear process for restitution in cases of accidental death, the law aims to protect life and prevent blood feuds, which were common in the pre-Islamic era. The laws create a system of justice that is both retributive and restorative, ensuring that accountability is established and the community can heal after a tragedy.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Islamic legal framework for homicide continues to be studied by legal scholars. The distinction between intentional and unintentional killing, and the corresponding differences in punishment, is a feature of virtually all modern legal systems. The Islamic concept of diyah (blood-money) is particularly interesting, as it combines punishment with a form of restorative justice, providing material support to the victim’s family. This is increasingly explored in modern restorative justice movements as an alternative or supplement to simple incarceration.

Practical Reflection & Application

Reflecting on the verses about qatl instills a profound respect for the sanctity of every human soul. It reminds us that taking a life is one of the gravest sins in the eyes of God. On a broader level, it encourages the creation of a society that values and protects life, working to eliminate the root causes of violence, from individual anger to systemic injustice. It is a powerful call to be guardians and preservers of life, not destroyers of it.

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61. Qawwāmūn (قَوَّامُونَ) – Maintainers / Protectors

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Qawwāmūn (singular: qawwām) is an intensive form from the root ق-و-م (Qāf-Wāw-Mīm), which means to stand, to establish, to maintain, or to manage. The intensive form qawwām implies one who does this with great care, consistency, and responsibility. It does not mean “ruler” or “master” but rather a guardian, maintainer, provider, and protector. It is a role of service and responsibility, not of privilege and authority.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In the famous verse of Surah An-Nisa 4:34, “Men are the protectors and maintainers (qawwāmūn) of women,” classical exegetes have understood this role to be based on two reasons explicitly mentioned in the verse: “because Allah has given one more (strength) than the other, and because they spend (in support) from their means.” The primary interpretation is that men are assigned the primary responsibility for the family’s financial maintenance and physical protection. This is seen not as a statement of inherent male superiority but as a functional division of responsibilities within the family structure.

Thematic Context

This concept is a cornerstone of the Surah’s theme of defining family roles and responsibilities. By assigning the role of qawwām to the man, the Qur’an also assigns him the primary financial burden, thus protecting the woman’s economic security. This leadership role is conditional upon him fulfilling his duty of provision and protection. It is part of a holistic system of mutual rights and duties designed to create a stable and functional family unit where each partner has a defined, complementary role.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of qawwāmūn (or qiwāmah) is at the heart of modern debates on gender roles in Islam. Many contemporary scholars argue for a more flexible and context-sensitive understanding. They point out that if the basis (‘illah) for qiwāmah is financial provision, then in modern contexts where women are often co-providers or even sole breadwinners, the nature of this “maintenance” role must be re-evaluated. They advocate for a model of partnership and shared leadership, arguing that the verse describes a common societal norm of its time rather than a rigid, universal hierarchy for all marriages.

Practical Reflection & Application

For men, understanding this term correctly is a call to a higher form of masculinity based on responsibility, not domination. It means striving to be a reliable source of emotional, physical, and financial support for one’s family. It means protecting them from harm and managing the family’s affairs with justice and consultation (shūrā). For both partners, it is an invitation to discuss and agree upon roles and responsibilities in a way that is just and mutually supportive, reflecting the Quranic ideal of spouses being “protecting friends” (awliyā’) of one another.

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62. Qintār (قِنْطَار) – A Large Amount / Hoard

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Qintār is of non-Arabic origin, likely borrowed from Latin (centenarius, a unit of a hundred) via Greek or Syriac. In Arabic, it came to mean a very large sum of money, a great weight of gold, or a hoard of treasure. It is used in the Qur’an to denote an immense amount of wealth, far beyond what is ordinary.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:20, the term is used in the context of the dower (mahr): “But if you want to replace one wife with another and you have given one of them a qintār, do not take [back] from it anything.” Classical commentators highlight the rhetorical force of this verse. By using the term qintār, the Qur’an indicates that even if a husband has given his wife an enormous fortune as her dower, he is still forbidden from unjustly taking any of it back upon divorce. This establishes the absolute and inviolable right of the wife to her dower, no matter how large.

Thematic Context

The use of the word qintār powerfully reinforces the Surah’s theme of women’s economic rights and the sanctity of contracts. It serves as a hyperbolic example to make a crystal clear legal and ethical point: what has been given to the wife as her dower is hers completely. This protects women from financial exploitation in the process of divorce and underscores the seriousness of the financial commitments made in the marriage contract.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The verse containing qintār is significant for Islamic law as it indicates that there is no prescribed upper limit to the dower a woman can receive. In modern times, while scholars often advise moderation, this verse is a testament to the high station and right to economic empowerment that Islam grants women. The principle of protecting a wife’s assets in a divorce settlement is a feature of modern family law in many parts of the world, but this verse establishes that right with divine authority.

Practical Reflection & Application

The lesson of the qintār extends beyond the dower to all our financial dealings. It is a lesson in integrity. It teaches us that a commitment is a commitment, and we must honor our financial agreements, big or small, with scrupulous honesty. It is a powerful warning against greed and the temptation to unjustly reclaim something that is no longer rightfully ours.

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63. Qisṭ (قِسْط) – Equity

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Qisṭ comes from the root ق-س-ط (Qāf-Sīn-Ṭā’). This root has a fascinating duality. The form qisṭ means equity, fairness, and justice. It is a justice that is scrupulous, precise, and impartial. However, another form from the same root, qāsiṭ, means one who deviates from justice, an unjust person. This linguistic feature highlights that the path of justice is precise, and any deviation from it leads to its opposite. The Qur’an commands believers to be “upholders of equity” (qawwāmīna bil-qisṭ).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the command to uphold qisṭ is foundational. Verse 4:135 delivers one of the most powerful statements on justice in any scripture: “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice (qawwāmīna bil-qisṭ), witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives.” Classical commentators have stressed the absolute and impartial nature of this command. Qisṭ is a higher standard than simple ‘adl (justice); it is a meticulous and unwavering commitment to what is right and equitable in every single situation, regardless of personal ties or self-interest.

Thematic Context

Qisṭ is the ultimate expression of the Surah’s central theme of justice. While the Surah begins by commanding justice for orphans and wives, this verse universalizes the principle. It demands a commitment to equity that transcends all tribal, familial, and personal loyalties. This uncompromising stand for objective truth and fairness, even when it is difficult, is presented as the hallmark of true faith and the bedrock of a righteous society.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The principle of qisṭ is deeply resonant with modern ideals of impartial justice and the rule of law. It provides an Islamic basis for fighting against nepotism, corruption, and systemic injustice. The idea of testifying against one’s own kin for the sake of truth is a revolutionary ethical demand that challenges the tribalism and identity politics prevalent in many cultures, past and present. It is comparable to the Western ideal of a blindfolded Lady Justice, but it is internalized as a personal, God-centric duty rather than just an institutional ideal.

Practical Reflection & Application

Living by the principle of qisṭ is a profound daily challenge. It means being honest in business dealings even if it costs you a profit. It means admitting when you are wrong in an argument, even with your own family. It means standing up for someone who is being treated unfairly, even if they are not from your social group or you dislike them personally. It is the difficult but beautiful practice of making truth and equity your ultimate standard, above all other considerations.

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64. Raḥmah (رَحْمَة) – Mercy

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Raḥmah comes from the root ر-ح-م (Rā’-Ḥā’-Mīm). The core meaning of this root is related to the womb (raḥim) of a mother. This evokes the qualities of nurturing love, tenderness, compassion, and all-encompassing care. Raḥmah is therefore a profound and tender mercy that is both compassionate and life-giving. God’s primary names, Ar-Raḥmān (The Entirely Merciful) and Ar-Raḥīm (The Especially Merciful), come from this root.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, raḥmah is presented as God’s overwhelming attribute. Verse 4:175 promises that those who believe and hold fast to God, “He will admit them to mercy (raḥmah) from Himself and bounty.” The possibility of forgiveness after repentance is a manifestation of this mercy. The Surah also frames divine guidance itself as a form of mercy: “And if not for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy (raḥmatuh), you would have followed Satan, except for a few” (4:83). Classical scholars see God’s mercy as the ultimate context in which all His commands, and even His punishments, should be understood.

Thematic Context

The theme of raḥmah is the essential counterpart to the theme of justice in the Surah. While the law establishes rights and consequences, mercy provides the space for forgiveness, reconciliation, and second chances. A society built only on strict justice can be harsh; a society infused with raḥmah becomes compassionate and healing. God’s mercy is the ultimate hope for believers, assuring them that despite their flaws, the door to forgiveness and grace is always open.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of divine mercy is a cornerstone of the Abrahamic faiths. The Islamic emphasis, rooted in the etymology of the “womb,” presents a particularly tender and nurturing vision of God’s mercy. In modern interfaith dialogue, the shared emphasis on a merciful God is a major point of convergence. The call for believers to embody this mercy in their own lives is a timeless ethical teaching that resonates across all cultures, promoting compassion and kindness as the highest virtues.

Practical Reflection & Application

We are all in desperate need of God’s raḥmah. One of the best ways to attract that mercy is to show mercy to His creation. The Prophet taught that “those who are merciful will be shown mercy by the Most Merciful.” The practical application is to make a conscious effort to be a source of mercy and compassion in the world—to be merciful to our families, our neighbors, animals, and the environment. Every act of kindness is a reflection of this divine attribute and an invitation for it to enter our own lives.

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65. Rasūl (رَسُول) – Messenger

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Rasūl (plural: rusul) comes from the root ر-س-ل (Rā’-Sīn-Lām), which means to send. A Rasūl is literally “one who is sent,” a messenger, an envoy, or an apostle. In the Quranic context, a Rasūl is a specific type of prophet (Nabī) who is sent by God to a particular people with a message or a divine book (scripture). The term emphasizes the function of delivering a message on behalf of the sender, God Almighty.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Throughout Surah An-Nisa, obedience to the Rasūl (referring to the Prophet Muhammad) is explicitly and repeatedly linked to obedience to Allah (e.g., 4:64, 4:80). Classical commentators are unanimous that the Rasūl is not a mere postman who delivers a book and whose job is then done. Rather, he is the authoritative interpreter and living embodiment of that message. Therefore, his commands, prohibitions, and judgments (his Sunnah) are a binding source of guidance and law for the community of believers.

Thematic Context

The role of the Rasūl is central to the theme of establishing legitimate authority in the Muslim community. The Surah makes it clear that the sources of guidance and legislation are “Allah and the Messenger.” This dual-source framework became the foundation of Islamic jurisprudence. By establishing the authority of the Rasūl, the Qur’an ensures that its message is not left to purely subjective interpretation but is anchored in the concrete, lived example and teachings of the one who received the revelation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The authority of the Rasūl is a key topic in modern Islamic thought. While all Muslims accept the Qur’an as the word of God, there are varying approaches to the authority and interpretation of the Hadith (narrations about the Prophet’s words and actions). Some groups (often termed “Qur’anists”) argue for relying on the Qur’an alone, while the overwhelming majority of Sunni and Shi’a Islam hold that the Sunnah of the Rasūl is an indispensable and divinely-willed source of guidance. Comparatively, the concept of a “messenger” is key to Christianity as well, where Jesus is seen as bringing the “good news,” and his apostles (from the Greek apostolos, “one who is sent”) continue that mission.

Practical Reflection & Application

Embracing the Prophet Muhammad as a Rasūl means more than just believing he was a historical figure who brought the Qur’an. It means accepting him as a guide for one’s life. It involves studying his biography (sīrah) to understand the context of the revelation and his teachings (sunnah) for practical guidance on how to live a life pleasing to God. It is about developing a personal connection of love and reverence that translates into a desire to follow his noble example.

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66. Riyā’ (رِيَاء) – Showing Off / Ostentation

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Riyā’ comes from the root ر-ء-ي (Rā’-Hamza-Yā’), which means to see. Riyā’ is the act of performing a deed, particularly an act of worship or charity, not for the sake of God, but for the sake of being seen and praised by other people. It is ostentation in religious practice. It is a disease of the intention (niyyah) and is sometimes called “minor shirk” (al-shirk al-asghar) because it involves seeking the approval of creation alongside, or instead of, the Creator.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:38), riyā’ is mentioned as a characteristic of those who spend their wealth “to be seen by men” but do not truly believe in God and the Last Day. Such people are described as being companions of Satan. The classical understanding is that any good deed that is corrupted by riyā’ is rendered null and void in the sight of God, because the fundamental condition for the acceptance of a deed is that it be done with sincerity (ikhlāṣ) for Him alone.

Thematic Context

The condemnation of riyā’ is thematically linked to the Surah’s critique of hypocrisy (nifāq) and its emphasis on true faith (īmān). Riyā’ is the outward symptom of a weak and insincere faith. A true believer acts out of God-consciousness (taqwā) and seeks only God’s pleasure, whether people are watching or not. The hypocrite, on the other hand, is concerned only with public image. The Surah purifies the community’s ethos by demanding that its good works be as sincere as its beliefs.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of riyā’ is profoundly relevant in the age of social media, which is often dubbed the “attention economy.” The temptation to performatively display one’s charity, worship, or piety online for “likes” and public acclaim is a modern manifestation of riyā’. The Quranic warning serves as a powerful critique of this culture of “virtue signaling.” The concept is paralleled in the Gospel teaching of Jesus, who warns against praying on street corners to be seen by men and advises giving charity in such secrecy that “your left hand does not know what your right hand is doing” (Matthew 6:1-6).

Practical Reflection & Application

The fight against riyā’ is a central part of the inner spiritual struggle (jihād al-nafs). It requires constant self-monitoring of one’s intentions. Before performing a good deed, one should ask: “Am I doing this for God, or for the praise of others?” One of the most effective ways to cultivate sincerity is to perform acts of charity and worship in secret, known only to oneself and God. This trains the soul to seek its reward from the only source that matters.

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67. Rūḥ (رُوح) – Spirit

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Rūḥ comes from a root that signifies breath, wind, or spirit. The Rūḥ is the divine, life-giving “breath” or “spirit” from God. It is the non-physical, transcendent component of a living being that connects it to the divine realm. It is often associated with life, revelation, and divine inspiration.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:171), in the context of addressing the Christians, Jesus is described as “His Word which He directed to Mary and a spirit (rūḥun) from Him.” Classical commentators have explained this to mean that Jesus’s creation was a special act, initiated by the command (“Word”) of God and infused with a divinely-created spirit. This verse affirms the miraculous birth of Jesus while clearly refuting the idea that he is a “part” of God. The “spirit from Him” is interpreted as a spirit created by Him and honored by being attributed to Him, not as a piece of the divine essence.

Thematic Context

The concept of the Rūḥ in this verse is crucial to the Surah’s theme of theological clarification and the correction of creedal errors. By providing a precise theological definition of Jesus’s nature, the Qur’an aims to bring the Christian community back to a pure monotheistic understanding. It honors Jesus as a great prophet created by a divine spirit but stops short of the deification that it considers to be exaggeration (ghulūw).

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of the “spirit” is central to nearly all religious and spiritual traditions. In the Abrahamic faiths, the “Spirit of God” is associated with creation and prophecy (e.g., Genesis 1:2). In Christianity, the Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity. The Islamic conception of the Rūḥ, particularly the “Holy Spirit” (Rūḥ al-Qudus), which is identified with the Angel Gabriel, is distinct. It is a powerful, created being that acts as the agent of divine revelation, not as a person of the Godhead itself.

Practical Reflection & Application

The mention of the rūḥ is a reminder of the transcendent dimension of our existence. We are not just physical bodies; we have been endowed with a spirit from God. This gives our lives a sacred purpose and a connection to a higher reality. The practical application is to nurture our spirit through acts of worship, remembrance, and reflection, just as we nurture our bodies with food and water. A healthy spirit is one that is alive with the remembrance of its Creator.

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68. Sabīl Allāh (سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ) – The Way of Allah

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is a compound phrase. Sabīl (سَبِيل) means a path, a way, or a road. Allāh (اللَّه) is the proper name for God. The phrase Sabīl Allāh therefore means “The Way of Allah” or “The Path of God.” It is a comprehensive term for the cause of God, encompassing all actions, struggles, and expenditures undertaken to promote the religion of God and establish justice and righteousness on earth.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the term Sabīl Allāh is used frequently, often in the context of struggle and sacrifice. Believers are commanded to “fight in the way of Allah” (qātilū fī sabīlillāh) to defend the oppressed (4:75-76). Those who migrate (4:100) or strive with their wealth and lives (4:95) are described as doing so “in the way of Allah.” The classical understanding is that any action, when done with the sincere intention of pleasing God and upholding His cause, falls under the umbrella of being fī sabīlillāh.

Thematic Context

The theme of Sabīl Allāh provides the ultimate purpose and motivation for the difficult commands in the Surah. The laws are not arbitrary; the struggles are not for worldly gain. Everything—from fighting injustice to migrating from oppression to spending one’s wealth—is part of a single, noble path: the path that leads to God and establishes His will on earth. This concept imbues the life of a believer with a profound sense of purpose and mission.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern discourse, the term has been both used and abused. While mainstream scholars define it broadly to include all forms of social and spiritual good—such as building schools, funding research, and charitable work—extremist groups have attempted to narrow its meaning to refer exclusively to their violent agenda. Reclaiming the comprehensive, positive meaning of Sabīl Allāh is a major intellectual project in contemporary Islam. The concept of a divine “Way” or “Path” is common in many religions, such as the Tao in Taoism or the Halakha (“the way to walk”) in Judaism.

Practical Reflection & Application

We should strive to make our entire lives “in the Way of Allah.” This is achieved through intention (niyyah). When we work an honest job to provide for our family, we can intend it to be fī sabīlillāh. When we study to gain knowledge to benefit humanity, it can be fī sabīlillāh. When we are kind to a neighbor to foster community, it is fī sabīlillāh. This transforms our entire life from a series of mundane actions into a single, purposeful journey on the path to God.

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69. Ṣabr (صَبْر) – Patience / Steadfastness

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣabr comes from the root ص-ب-ر (Ṣād-Bā’-Rā’), which means to restrain, to hold back, or to be patient. Ṣabr is not passive resignation or helplessness. It is an active, dynamic, and powerful spiritual state. It is the act of restraining the soul from despair, holding the tongue from complaining, and preventing the limbs from acting in a way that is displeasing to God during times of affliction. It is steadfast, persevering patience.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While the word itself is not a major keyword in Surah An-Nisa, the entire spirit of the Surah calls for ṣabr. The believers are commanded to undertake difficult tasks—fighting, migrating, dealing justly with difficult family members—all of which require immense patience and perseverance. The promise of a great reward (ajran ‘aẓīmā) is the ultimate fruit of this steadfastness. The classical tradition divides ṣabr into three types: patience in enduring hardship, patience in abstaining from what is forbidden, and patience in persevering in what is commanded.

Thematic Context

The virtue of ṣabr is the essential inner resource needed to implement the Surah’s demanding social and legal project. A just society cannot be built overnight. It requires a long, patient struggle against injustice, hypocrisy, and one’s own inner demons. Ṣabr is the spiritual stamina that allows the community of believers to remain steadfast on the path of God despite the obstacles and trials they will inevitably face.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The virtue of patience or fortitude is praised in virtually all ethical and religious systems. The Islamic concept of ṣabr is particularly active and comprehensive. It is not just about “enduring” hardship but about persevering in doing good and abstaining from evil, even when it is difficult. In a modern culture that prizes instant gratification, the cultivation of ṣabr is seen as a crucial spiritual discipline for developing resilience, self-control, and long-term focus.

Practical Reflection & Application

Ṣabr is a quality we need in every aspect of our lives: patience with a difficult child, patience in a traffic jam, patience while waiting for the results of a long-term project, and patience with our own spiritual progress. We can cultivate ṣabr by reminding ourselves that God is with the patient, that every moment of patient struggle is being recorded and rewarded, and that ease will eventually follow hardship. It is a muscle that grows stronger with every trial we face with grace and perseverance.

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70. Ṣadaqah (صَدَقَة) – Charity

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣadaqah comes from the root ص-د-ق (Ṣād-Dāl-Qāf), which means truthfulness and sincerity. Ṣadaqah is voluntary charity, so-named because it is a “proof” or a sign of the truthfulness of the giver’s faith (īmān). It is a practical demonstration that one’s belief in God and the hereafter is sincere, as they are willing to part with their wealth for His sake.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the virtue of giving ṣadaqah is highly praised. Verse 4:114 states that there is great good in enjoining ṣadaqah. The Surah also makes a clear distinction between charity given sincerely for God’s pleasure and wealth spent for show (riyā’), which is a characteristic of the hypocrites (4:38). Classical scholars distinguish between zakāh (the obligatory, purifying charity) and ṣadaqah (any voluntary act of charity above and beyond the obligatory).

Thematic Context

The theme of ṣadaqah is a key practical expression of the Surah’s emphasis on social compassion and economic justice. While the laws of inheritance ensure a just distribution of wealth after death, ṣadaqah is the primary mechanism for circulating wealth and caring for the needy during one’s life. It is the antidote to stinginess (bukhl) and greed, and it is the glue that binds the community together in a network of mutual care and support.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of charity as a religious duty is a cornerstone of the Abrahamic faiths (e.g., Tzedakah in Judaism). The Islamic concept of ṣadaqah is notable for its breadth; it is not limited to giving money. The Prophet taught that even a smile is a form of ṣadaqah, as is removing a harmful object from the road or speaking a kind word. This expansive definition democratizes charity, allowing every single person, regardless of their wealth, to be a giver.

Practical Reflection & Application

The principle of ṣadaqah encourages a lifestyle of everyday generosity. We should look for opportunities to give, not just from our wealth, but from our time, our skills, our knowledge, and our compassion. The practice of giving regular, even if small, amounts of charity is a powerful way to purify one’s wealth, ward off calamity, and demonstrate the sincerity of one’s faith in a tangible way.

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71. Ṣadaqāt (صَدُقَات) – Dower / Bridal Gifts

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣadaqāt (singular: ṣaduqah) in the context of marriage comes from the root ص-د-ق (Ṣād-Dāl-Qāf), which means truthfulness, sincerity, and to be firm. A ṣaduqah (also known as mahr) is the obligatory bridal gift or dower given by the husband to the wife at the time of marriage. It is so-named because it is a sign of the husband’s sincerity and honest desire to enter into the marital contract and uphold its responsibilities.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa (4:4), the command is given: “And give the women (on marriage) their dower (ṣadaqātihinna) as a free gift.” The verse adds that if the wife, of her own good pleasure, remits any part of it, the husband may enjoy it with clear conscience. Classical commentators emphasize several points: the dower is the exclusive right of the wife, not her father or guardian; it is a gift (niḥlah), not a price for her; and the husband is forbidden from taking it back unless under specific legal circumstances.

Thematic Context

The institution of the dower is a crucial element in the Surah’s theme of establishing women’s economic rights and honoring them in marriage. In pre-Islamic times, the dower was often treated as a payment to the bride’s father. By making it an obligatory gift directly to the wife, the Qur’an gives her independent financial capital at the very outset of her marriage. This act serves as a token of respect and commitment, and it provides her with a measure of financial security.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern practice, the nature and amount of the dower vary widely across Muslim cultures. Sometimes it is a nominal amount, while in other cultures it can be very substantial. Modern scholars emphasize that the spirit of the dower should be maintained: it should be a sincere gift that is within the husband’s means, not a tool for vanity or a prohibitive barrier to marriage. The concept contrasts with the historical European institution of the “dowry,” which was wealth a woman brought into the marriage, often paid by her family to the groom.

Practical Reflection & Application

For those entering marriage, the dower should be treated with the seriousness the Qur’an affords it. It should be a gift given freely and generously, symbolizing love, respect, and a sincere commitment to providing for one’s wife. It is a beautiful Quranic institution that establishes the foundation of the marriage on a gesture of honor and generosity, setting a positive tone for the entire relationship.

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72. Ṣalāh (صَلَاة) – Prayer

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣalāh comes from the root ص-ل-و (Ṣād-Lām-Wāw). The most common linguistic understanding is that its core meaning is connection or link. Ṣalāh is therefore the prescribed ritual prayer that serves as the believer’s direct link and connection with God. Another opinion links it to a root meaning “to supplicate” or “pray.” It is the second pillar of Islam and is mentioned frequently throughout the Qur’an.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa emphasizes the importance of performing the ṣalāh consistently and in all circumstances. It mentions the “Prayer of Fear” (Ṣalāt al-Khawf, 4:101-102), which demonstrates the prayer’s non-negotiable status even during battle. It also states, “Indeed, prayer has been decreed upon the believers a decree of specified times” (kitāban mawqūtā, 4:103). Classical scholars have derived from such verses the obligatory nature of the five daily prayers, the importance of performing them at their appointed times, and their role as a source of strength and discipline for the believer.

Thematic Context

The theme of ṣalāh is interwoven with the Surah’s goal of building a disciplined and God-conscious community. Prayer is not just a personal spiritual act; it is a communal institution that brings believers together, instills discipline, and provides spiritual fortitude. The Surah shows that the legal and social justice it calls for must be grounded in a constant, living connection to the Divine Lawgiver, and this connection is primarily maintained through the institution of ṣalāh.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern life, the discipline of the five daily prayers is often seen as a spiritual anchor in a chaotic world. It provides a daily rhythm of remembrance and reflection, pulling a person out of their worldly concerns to reconnect with their ultimate purpose. The physical motions of the prayer (standing, bowing, prostrating) are also increasingly studied for their psychological and physiological benefits. The concept of prescribed, ritualized prayer is a common feature in many world religions, but the frequency and specific format of the Islamic ṣalāh are unique.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical application of ṣalāh is to move beyond a mechanical performance of rituals and to cultivate khushū‘ (humble concentration). It is to see each prayer as a personal audience with God—a precious opportunity to pause, express gratitude, seek guidance, and recharge one’s spiritual batteries. The challenge is to protect the prayer times in our busy schedules and to make the prayer the true centerpiece of our day, around which all other activities revolve.

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73. Ṣāliḥ (صَالِح) – Righteous

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣāliḥ comes from the root ص-ل-ح (Ṣād-Lām-Ḥā’). The core meaning of this root is to be good, to be right, to be sound, or to be fit for a purpose. It is the opposite of being corrupt or spoiled (fasād). A person who is ṣāliḥ (plural: ṣāliḥūn) is one who is morally upright, virtuous, and whose actions are sound and beneficial. An ‘amal ṣāliḥ is a righteous deed.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the ṣāliḥūn are mentioned as one of the blessed categories of people in the company of the prophets and the truthful (4:69). The Surah also describes the “righteous women” (al-ṣāliḥāt) as being devoutly obedient and guarding in the husband’s absence what God would have them guard (4:34). The classical understanding is that righteousness (ṣalāḥ) is the natural outcome of true faith (īmān). It is not a passive state of being good, but an active state of doing good deeds and maintaining moral integrity.

Thematic Context

The ideal of the ṣāliḥ individual is central to the Surah’s vision of a virtuous society. The Surah’s laws are the external framework, but they can only be successfully implemented by people who have an internal commitment to righteousness. A society can only be just if its men and women strive to be ṣāliḥ. The concept connects faith with action, showing that belief must translate into upright character and beneficial conduct for it to have any real value.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of being ṣāliḥ is a holistic one that modern Islamic ethicists often highlight. It is not about being perfect, but about being in a constant process of mending and improving oneself (iṣlāḥ). A righteous person is one who brings benefit and order to their surroundings, rather than corruption and discord. This comprehensive ideal of “goodness”—encompassing personal piety, social responsibility, and ethical conduct—is a universal aspiration found in virtually all religious and philosophical traditions.

Practical Reflection & Application

The pursuit of righteousness is a lifelong goal. It means striving to be honest in our speech, just in our dealings, compassionate to others, and responsible in our roles. A simple daily practice is to ask oneself: “Did my actions today bring more goodness (ṣalāḥ) or more corruption (fasād) to the world around me?” This question can help guide one’s choices and cultivate the character of a ṣāliḥ person, who is a source of benefit to all of creation.

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74. Salām (سَلَام) – Peace

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Salām comes from the root س-ل-م (Sīn-Lām-Mīm). The core meaning of this root is to be safe, sound, and secure from any harm or defect. From this root come the words salām (peace), islām (submission which leads to peace), and salīm (sound or whole, as in a “sound heart”). Salām is not just the absence of conflict; it is a positive state of security, wholeness, and well-being. One of God’s names is As-Salām (The Source of Peace).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, verse 4:94, believers are cautioned, “do not say to one who gives you a greeting of peace (as-salām), ‘You are not a believer,'” seeking the spoils of this life. The classical context is that during a military expedition, if an opponent offered the greeting of Islam, it was to be accepted as a sign of their surrender or conversion, and their life and property were to be held sacred. This verse establishes the sanctity of the greeting of peace as a means of ceasing hostilities and protecting life.

Thematic Context

The theme of salām is interwoven with the Surah’s goal of establishing a just and secure society. The ultimate aim of the laws, the struggle, and the social etiquette prescribed in the Surah is to create a state of internal and external peace. The standard greeting of “As-Salāmu ‘Alaykum” (Peace be upon you) is a constant verbal reinforcement of this core value, a prayer that the recipient be granted security and well-being.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The pursuit of peace is a universal human aspiration. The Islamic concept of salām is comprehensive, encompassing peace within the self (through submission to God), peace in society (through justice and compassion), and peace with God. In modern conflict resolution and peace studies, the principles underlying the Quranic approach—such as the sanctity of life, the importance of reconciliation (ṣulḥ), and the call to justice (‘adl)—are highly relevant. The word is cognate with the Hebrew word Shalom, which has a similarly rich meaning of wholeness and peace.

Practical Reflection & Application

We are commanded to be agents of peace. The practical application begins with our words. By making the greeting of salām a regular and sincere part of our interactions, we spread a prayer for peace. Beyond this, we should strive to be peacemakers in our families and communities, working to resolve conflicts, foster understanding, and create an environment where everyone can feel safe and secure.

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75. Sayyi’ah (سَيِّئَة) – An Evil Deed / Misfortune

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Sayyi’ah comes from the root س-و-ء (Sīn-Wāw-Hamza), which means to be evil, bad, vile, or to sadden. A sayyi’ah is the opposite of a ḥasanah (a good deed/good fortune). It can refer to two things: 1) An evil deed or a sin. 2) A calamity, a misfortune, or an affliction that saddens a person.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:79, the relationship between ḥasanah and sayyi’ah is explained: “Whatever good (ḥasanah) befalls you, is from Allah; and whatever evil (sayyi’ah) befalls you, is from yourself.” As discussed under ḥasanah, classical exegetes clarify that while God is the ultimate creator of all events, this verse teaches a crucial lesson in etiquette (adab) and responsibility. Good fortune should be attributed to God’s pure grace. Misfortune (sayyi’ah), however, should be understood as the consequence of our own sins and shortcomings (the other meaning of sayyi’ah). This prompts self-reflection rather than blaming God.

Thematic Context

This concept is theologically central to the theme of human responsibility and divine justice. The Surah places heavy emphasis on obeying divine law, and the concept of sayyi’ah reinforces this. Committing evil deeds (sayyi’āt) has consequences, not just in the hereafter, but often in this world in the form of hardship and misfortune. This understanding provides a moral compass, guiding believers away from sin and towards righteousness by highlighting the cause-and-effect relationship between actions and outcomes.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The link between sin and suffering is a deep theological topic known as theodicy. The Islamic perspective, as articulated in this verse, provides a framework that upholds both God’s omnipotence and human free will. Modern Muslim thinkers emphasize its psychological benefits: it prevents a sense of entitlement when things go well (it’s all from God’s grace) and fosters a proactive, problem-solving mindset when things go wrong (it’s from my own doing, so I must repent and reform). This is a sophisticated response to the problem of evil that avoids both fatalism and blaming the divine.

Practical Reflection & Application

This principle encourages a powerful shift in perspective. When faced with a difficulty—whether a financial problem, a health issue, or a relationship conflict—the first step is to engage in introspection (muhasabah). “Is there a sin I need to repent from? Is there a character flaw I need to correct?” While not every misfortune is a direct, one-to-one punishment for a specific sin, viewing hardship as an opportunity for purification and a consequence of our collective human state of error is a spiritually mature response that leads to growth rather than despair.

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76. Shafā‘ah (شَفَاعَة) – Intercession

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Shafā‘ah comes from the root ش-ف-ع (Shīn-Fā’-‘Ayn), which means “to make something one of a pair,” from the word shaf‘ (even number), as opposed to witr (odd number). An intercessor is someone who adds their own recommendation or plea to the plea of another person, thus making the plea a “pair” and strengthening it. Shafā‘ah, therefore, means to intercede, to mediate, or to plead on behalf of another.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa 4:85 discusses intercession in a worldly context: “Whoever intercedes for a good cause will have a share (of the reward) thereof; and whoever intercedes for an evil cause will have a portion (of the sin) thereof.” Classical commentators explain that this refers to using one’s influence to support another person. If you help someone achieve something good (like getting a job they deserve), you share in the good that results. If you help someone achieve something sinful (like escaping justice or getting a position they don’t deserve), you share in the resulting sin. The verse makes one responsible for how they use their social capital.

Thematic Context

This concept is integral to the Surah’s theme of social responsibility and interconnectedness. It teaches that individuals in a community are not isolated atoms; their actions and influence have ripple effects. The principle of shafā‘ah encourages believers to be proactive agents of good, using their networks and influence to support justice and righteousness. It also serves as a stern warning against nepotism, cronyism, and using one’s influence to support corruption.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern ethics, this principle is highly relevant to discussions on networking, professional recommendations, and social activism. The verse provides a clear ethical framework: influence is a trust (amānah) that must be used to promote merit and goodness (shafā‘ah ḥasanah) and never to perpetuate evil or injustice (shafā‘ah sayyi’ah). The theological concept of intercession on the Day of Judgment is also a major topic in Islam, but this verse grounds the principle in immediate, worldly, social ethics.

Practical Reflection & Application

This verse prompts us to consider our own influence, no matter how small. When a friend asks for a reference, when we have the opportunity to recommend someone for a position, or when we can speak up for a just cause, we are engaging in a form of shafā‘ah. The practical application is to always use our voice and influence to support what is right, true, and just, with the awareness that we will share in the ultimate outcome of our intercession, for better or for worse.

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77. Shahīd (شَهِيد) – Witness

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Shahīd (plural: shuhadā’) comes from the root ش-ه-د (Shīn-Hā’-Dāl), which means to witness, to be present, to see, or to testify. A shahīd has three primary, interconnected meanings: 1) A witness in a legal sense, who testifies to a fact. 2) A martyr, who bears the ultimate witness to their faith with their life. They are called shahīd because their sincerity is witnessed by God, and the angels are said to be present at their death. 3) God Himself is Ash-Shahīd, The All-Knowing Witness.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the meaning of legal witness is prominent. Verse 4:135 commands believers to be “witnesses for Allah” (shuhadā’a lillāh), upholding justice even if it is against themselves. It emphasizes the sacred duty of giving truthful testimony. The Surah also mentions the shuhadā’ as a high-ranking category of believers who will be in the company of the prophets in paradise (4:69). Here, the term carries the dual meaning of those who were witnesses to the truth in this life and those who were martyred for it.

Thematic Context

The concept of being a shahīd is central to the Surah’s theme of upholding justice and truth. A just legal system is impossible without truthful witnesses. The Qur’an elevates the act of bearing witness from a mere civic duty to a sacred act of worship performed “for Allah.” The community is thus envisioned as a community of witnesses, collectively responsible for upholding and testifying to the truth in all spheres of life.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern legal and political discourse, the role of the “witness” is crucial for documenting human rights abuses and establishing justice. The Quranic ideal of the shahīd is a powerful motivator for social and political activism, encouraging believers to “bear witness” against oppression and corruption. The idea of the martyr as the ultimate witness is also found in Christianity, where the word “martyr” itself comes from the Greek word for “witness.”

Practical Reflection & Application

Living as a “witness for Allah” means embodying truth and integrity in our daily lives. It means speaking the truth, even when it is difficult. It means standing up against falsehood and injustice when we see it. It means our very lives—our character, our actions, our ethics—should serve as a testimony to the beauty and truth of the faith we profess. It is about living a life of authentic, observable integrity.

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78. Shakk (شَكّ) – Doubt

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Shakk comes from the root ش-ك-ك (Shīn-Kāf-Kāf), which means to doubt, to be uncertain, or to be in a state of hesitation. It implies a wavering of the mind between two opposing possibilities, without being able to incline towards one or the other. It is a state of uncertainty that prevents firm conviction. In the Qur’an, it is contrasted with yaqīn (certainty).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, shakk is identified as a primary characteristic of the hypocrites and the disbelievers. For example, verse 4:157 states that the People of the Book have no certain knowledge about the crucifixion of Jesus, but follow only assumption, and are in “a state of doubt” (shakk) about it. The hypocrites are also described as being in a state of wavering and doubt. Classical scholars explain that shakk in the core principles of faith is a spiritually fatal disease, because it prevents the absolute trust and submission that define īmān.

Thematic Context

The theme of doubt serves as a foil to the theme of certainty and faith. The Surah presents the message of Islam as clear, manifest guidance. Rejection of this guidance is often rooted not in a lack of evidence, but in a state of doubt fueled by arrogance, assumption, or adherence to tradition. The Surah calls people to move from the darkness of doubt to the light of the certainty that comes from divine revelation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern philosophy, particularly since the Enlightenment, doubt (methodological skepticism) has often been valorized as the starting point for true knowledge. Islam, however, makes a distinction. There is the natural, inquisitive doubt that leads one to seek knowledge and resolve uncertainty—this can be a healthy catalyst for strengthening faith. Then there is the corrosive, persistent shakk about fundamental truths, which becomes a veil that prevents one from ever reaching conviction. The Quranic critique is aimed at this latter type of doubt, which is a state of spiritual paralysis.

Practical Reflection & Application

It is natural for questions and even occasional doubts to arise in a person’s faith journey. The correct response is not to suppress them, but to actively seek knowledge to resolve them. This involves studying the Qur’an, learning from reliable scholars, and making sincere supplication (du‘ā’) to God for guidance and certainty. The goal is to engage with one’s doubts honestly and proactively, using them as an impetus to deepen one’s knowledge and move towards a more robust and well-grounded faith.

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79. Shayṭān (شَيْطَان) – Satan

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The name Shayṭān is thought to derive from the root ش-ط-ن (Shīn-Ṭā’-Nūn), which means to be distant or to be remote. The Shayṭān is so-named because he is “remote” from the mercy of God and works to make humanity remote from it as well. Another possible origin is the root ش-ي-ط (Shīn-Yā’-Ṭā’), which means “to burn” or “to scorch,” referring to his creation from fire or his destiny therein. He is a specific entity, also known as Iblīs, and the term can also refer to any of his followers, human or jinn, who are rebellious and defiant.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, Shayṭān is portrayed as the avowed enemy of humanity. He desires to lead people “far astray” (4:60). He makes false promises and stirs up vain desires in them, but his promises are nothing but deception (4:120). He is the one who encourages miserliness and ostentation (4:38). The Surah clearly identifies him as the force that works to undermine the believer’s faith and the community’s integrity, often by making sin seem attractive and obedience seem burdensome.

Thematic Context

The theme of Shayṭān‘s enmity is crucial for understanding the moral and spiritual struggle that the Surah outlines. The path to righteousness is not a simple, unopposed journey; it is a struggle against a real, intelligent, and malevolent force. The Surah’s warnings about Shayṭān serve to heighten the believer’s vigilance and awareness (taqwā). By understanding the enemy’s primary strategies—whispering doubts, encouraging vice, and making falsehoods seem appealing—the believer is better equipped to resist his influence.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of a personal, evil tempter is a common feature in the Abrahamic religions (Satan in Christianity, Samael in some Jewish traditions). In modern secular thought, the idea is often dismissed as myth, with evil being explained through purely psychological or sociological factors. From an Islamic perspective, these factors are not denied, but Shayṭān represents a distinct, external, metaphysical reality that exploits these human weaknesses. He does not force humans to sin but “whispers” (waswasa) and tempts, with the final choice remaining with the individual.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical defense against Shayṭān is to learn his tactics and seek refuge from him. This is done through specific acts taught in the tradition, such as seeking refuge in Allah (saying A‘ūdhu billāhi min ash-shayṭān ir-rajīm), engaging in the remembrance of God (dhikr), which drives him away, and being aware of the typical entry points he uses, such as anger, arrogance, and despair. It is about being in a state of constant spiritual alertness.

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80. Shirk (شِرْك) – Associating Partners with God

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Shirk comes from the root ش-ر-ك (Shīn-Rā’-Kāf), which means to share or to be a partner. In the theological context, Shirk means associating partners with Allah. It is to give a share of what belongs exclusively to God—such as His divinity, His attributes, or the worship that is due to Him—to someone or something else from His creation. It is the theological opposite of Tawḥīd (pure monotheism) and is considered the gravest of all sins in Islam.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa contains two of the most definitive statements on shirk in the Qur’an. Verses 4:48 and 4:116 are nearly identical, stating: “Indeed, Allah does not forgive that partners be associated with Him (shirk), but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills.” Classical commentators explain that this refers to a person who dies upon a state of unrepented shirk. It is the one “unforgivable sin” because it is a direct violation of the fundamental purpose of creation, which is the exclusive worship of the Creator. It is an act of ultimate injustice (ẓulm).

Thematic Context

The absolute prohibition of shirk is the foundational theme of the entire Qur’an, and it underpins all the legislation in Surah An-Nisa. The ultimate goal of establishing justice, protecting the weak, and creating a virtuous society is to facilitate the pure worship of the One God. Shirk is the ultimate source of corruption, because once the relationship with the Creator is corrupted, all other relationships—with oneself, with society, with nature—inevitably become corrupted as well.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Modern Islamic thinkers have expanded the understanding of shirk beyond just the worship of idols. They speak of “hidden shirk” (shirk khafī), which can include things like loving wealth, power, or a nation more than one loves God; obeying a human being in an act of clear disobedience to God; or being motivated by the desire to please people rather than God (riyā’). In this sense, shirk becomes the act of deifying anything from creation, making it the ultimate object of one’s devotion and loyalty. This broad understanding of idolatry finds parallels in other monotheistic traditions.

Practical Reflection & Application

The warning against shirk calls for a deep and continuous examination of the heart. The central question is: “What is the ultimate loyalty of my life? What do I truly worship?” It is a call to purify one’s devotion, trust, hope, and fear, directing them all exclusively to God. This involves freeing oneself from the “idols” of the modern age—materialism, ego, ideology, the approval of others—and making God the sole center and purpose of one’s existence.

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81. Ṣiddīq (صِدِّيق) – The Truthful One

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣiddīq (plural: ṣiddīqūn) is an intensive form from the root ص-د-ق (Ṣād-Dāl-Qāf), which means to be truthful, to be sincere. The intensive form ṣiddīq denotes someone who is completely saturated with truthfulness. It is not just someone who does not lie, but someone whose entire being—their beliefs, their words, and their actions—is a perfect testament to the truth. They are the foremost affirmers and champions of the truth brought by the prophets.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:69, the ṣiddīqūn are mentioned as the second-highest category of humanity, ranked immediately after the prophets (nabiyyīn) and before the martyrs (shuhadā’) and the righteous (ṣāliḥīn). The most famous example of a ṣiddīq in the Islamic tradition is Abu Bakr, the first Caliph, who was given this title because he immediately and unhesitatingly affirmed the Prophet’s account of the Night Journey (al-Isrā’ wa-l-Mi‘rāj) when others hesitated.

Thematic Context

The mention of the ṣiddīqūn provides an inspirational ideal for the believers. The Surah calls for obedience to God and His Messenger, and the ṣiddīq is the perfect model of this obedience. They represent the level of faith where there is no hesitation, no doubt, and no gap between hearing the truth and accepting it with one’s whole being. They are the vanguard of the faithful, and their example encourages others to strive for a higher level of conviction and sincerity.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The archetype of the ṣiddīq resonates with the concept of the “saint” or the “righteous” in other traditions—individuals whose lives are defined by their extraordinary piety and unwavering commitment to divine truth. In a modern context often characterized by cynicism and relativism (“your truth vs. my truth”), the ideal of the ṣiddīq is a powerful call back to the idea that objective truth exists and that the highest human station is to live one’s life in complete alignment with it.

Practical Reflection & Application

While the rank of the great ṣiddīqūn of the past may seem unattainable, the quality of ṣidq (truthfulness) is something everyone can strive for. The practical application is to commit to being truthful in all situations, small and large. It means being honest in our speech, sincere in our intentions, and authentic in our character. It is the practice of aligning our inner reality with our outward persona, a daily struggle for integrity that, God willing, moves us closer to the station of the truthful.

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82. Ṣulḥ (صُلْح) – Reconciliation

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṣulḥ comes from the same root as ṣāliḥ: ص-ل-ح (Ṣād-Lām-Ḥā’), which means to be good, right, or sound. Ṣulḥ is the verbal noun that means reconciliation, amicable settlement, or peacemaking. It is the act of mending a broken relationship and restoring it to a state of soundness and righteousness. It is the active process of turning discord into harmony.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, ṣulḥ is presented as the ideal outcome for marital disputes. In the case of a husband’s ill-conduct or aversion (nushūz), verse 4:128 states that if the couple can “come to an amicable settlement (yuṣliḥā) between themselves, then reconciliation is best (waṣ-ṣulḥu khayr).” The Surah also praises private conversations that enjoin “reconciliation between people” (4:114). The classical understanding is that while divorce is permissible, the path of reconciliation is always morally and spiritually superior and more beloved to God.

Thematic Context

The theme of ṣulḥ is a crucial part of the Surah’s project of building a strong and harmonious community. The Surah recognizes that conflicts will inevitably arise, especially in the intimate context of the family. By explicitly praising and encouraging reconciliation, the Qur’an provides a powerful incentive to overcome pride and anger for the sake of preserving relationships and maintaining social cohesion. The principle “reconciliation is best” is a golden rule for all human interactions.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The principle of ṣulḥ is the basis for mediation and alternative dispute resolution in Islamic law, which are increasingly favored in modern legal systems as well. The idea of prioritizing amicable settlement over confrontational litigation is a cornerstone of restorative justice. The Quranic ideal encourages a proactive approach to conflict, seeking a win-win solution that mends the relationship, rather than a zero-sum battle that declares a winner and a loser and leaves the underlying discord unresolved.

Practical Reflection & Application

The principle “reconciliation is best” should be a guiding motto in our lives. When a conflict arises with a spouse, a family member, a friend, or a colleague, our first impulse should be to seek ṣulḥ. This requires humility, a willingness to compromise, and the courage to initiate a peaceful resolution. It means prioritizing the long-term health of the relationship over the short-term satisfaction of “winning” an argument. Every act of peacemaking is a blessed act in the sight of God.

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83. Ṭā‘ah (طَاعَة) – Obedience

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṭā‘ah comes from the root ط-و-ع (Ṭā’-Wāw-‘Ayn), which means to obey, to comply with, or to do something willingly and voluntarily. It implies an obedience that is not forced or coerced, but one that comes from one’s own volition. It is a willing submission to a legitimate authority, as opposed to a reluctant compliance under duress (ikrāh).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

The concept of ṭā‘ah is a major theme in Surah An-Nisa. The famous “verse of obedience” (4:59) commands the believers: “Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and those in authority among you (ulī al-amr).” Another verse (4:80) makes it even more explicit: “He who obeys the Messenger has indeed obeyed Allah.” Classical scholars have understood this to establish a clear hierarchy of authority: ultimate obedience is to God, which is expressed through obedience to His Messenger, and then to the legitimate leaders of the community, provided their commands do not contradict the commands of God and the Messenger.

Thematic Context

The command for ṭā‘ah is essential for the Surah’s project of establishing a stable and orderly society. Any community needs a clear structure of authority to function, prevent anarchy, and mobilize for the common good. By defining the sources of authority and demanding willing obedience to them, the Qur’an provides the blueprint for a cohesive and disciplined community (ummah) that is united in its purpose and effective in its actions.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of obedience to political authority (ulī al-amr) is a significant topic in modern Islamic political thought. Discussions revolve around defining who constitutes a “legitimate authority” in the modern era and the limits of this obedience. The consensus is that obedience is conditional upon the authority ruling justly and according to divine law; obedience is not required, and is in fact forbidden, in any command that constitutes a sin (“no obedience to a creature in disobedience to the Creator”). This provides a basis for both political stability and a mechanism for legitimate dissent against tyranny.

Practical Reflection & Application

The principle of ṭā‘ah begins with the self. The primary struggle is to bring one’s own soul (nafs) into a state of willing obedience to the commands of God. In our family and social lives, it means showing respect and cooperation with legitimate authority—parents, teachers, and community leaders—as long as they are not commanding something wrong. It is about cultivating a disposition that is humble and cooperative rather than rebellious and defiant, which is conducive to personal growth and social harmony.

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84. Ṭāghūt (طَاغُوت) – False Deities / Tyranny

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ṭāghūt comes from the root ط-غ-ي (Ṭā’-Ghayn-Yā’), which means to transgress the proper limits, to rebel, or to be tyrannical. Ṭāghūt is an intensive form that refers to any object of worship besides God, or any person or system that transgresses its proper bounds and demands the obedience that is due only to God. It can refer to an idol, a tyrant, a political system, or even one’s own ego when it rebels against divine law.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, belief in God is directly contrasted with disbelief in Ṭāghūt. Verse 4:60 criticizes those who claim to believe but then wish to turn for judgment to the Ṭāghūt, when they have been commanded to disbelieve in it. Verse 4:76 states that “those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve fight in the cause of Ṭāghūt.” Classical commentators have defined Ṭāghūt here as anything that is followed or obeyed in opposition to the command of God, with Satan being the foremost exemplar of Ṭāghūt.

Thematic Context

The concept of Ṭāghūt is the embodiment of everything that stands in opposition to the sovereignty of God (ḥākimiyyah) and the path of justice. The Surah presents a clear binary choice: humanity can either submit to the just and compassionate rule of God, or to the arbitrary and oppressive rule of Ṭāghūt. Rejecting Ṭāghūt—whether it is the tyranny of a ruler, the tyranny of an unjust social custom, or the tyranny of one’s own desires—is a necessary prerequisite for true faith (īmān).

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern Islamic political thought, particularly in the works of thinkers like Abul A’la Maududi and Sayyid Qutb, the concept of Ṭāghūt has been used to describe modern secular ideologies and state systems that legislate without reference to divine law, thus, in their view, usurping God’s sovereignty. This interpretation is politically charged but highlights the comprehensive nature of the term, which can encompass any system that demands ultimate loyalty and obedience in place of God. It represents the ultimate form of rebellion against the divine order.

Practical Reflection & Application

Disbelieving in Ṭāghūt is a continuous internal and external struggle. Internally, it is the struggle against the tyranny of one’s own ego (nafs), which constantly rebels and demands to be followed over the commands of God. Externally, it means refusing to submit to or legitimize any form of social, political, or intellectual tyranny that contradicts the core principles of justice and monotheism. It is a declaration of freedom from all forms of false servitude, in order to be a true servant of God alone.

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85. Tafākhur (تَفَاخُر) – Boasting

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Tafākhur comes from the root ف-خ-ر (Fā’-Khā’-Rā’), which means to boast, to brag, or to be proud. The specific form tafākhur implies a mutual boasting or a competition in pride between people. It is the act of vaunting one’s own achievements, lineage, or wealth in order to feel superior to others.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa 4:36, after listing the many categories of people to whom believers must show kindness (iḥsān), the verse concludes with a warning: “Indeed, Allah does not like those who are self-deluding and boastful (fakūrā).” The term used here is from the same root. The classical commentators explain that boastfulness and arrogance are the primary obstacles to charity and kindness. A boastful person is too consumed with their own perceived greatness to lower themselves to be kind to the needy or to acknowledge that their wealth is a gift from God.

Thematic Context

The condemnation of boasting is thematically linked to the Surah’s critique of arrogance and its related vices, such as stinginess and showing off. These are presented as the characteristics of the hypocrites and disbelievers, who are disconnected from the reality of their dependence on God. The Surah aims to cultivate a community based on humility, gratitude, and mutual support, and boasting is a toxic behavior that directly undermines these values.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The vice of pride or boastfulness is condemned in almost all ethical systems. In a modern context, the culture of social media often encourages a form of digital tafākhur, where individuals curate and broadcast an idealized version of their lives to compete for status and admiration. The Quranic warning against this behavior is a powerful antidote, reminding us that true worth is not found in the admiration of others but in a state of humble servitude to God.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical cure for boastfulness is the cultivation of gratitude (shukr). When we feel the urge to boast about an accomplishment, we should immediately redirect that feeling into gratitude to God, recognizing that any success we have is from His bounty (faḍl) alone. It also involves learning to find joy in the successes of others rather than seeing them as a threat to our own status. It is about deflating the ego and recognizing our true place as humble servants of the Most High.

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86. Taḥiyyah (تَحِيَّة) – A Greeting

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Taḥiyyah comes from the root ح-ي-ي (Ḥā’-Yā’-Yā’), which is the same root as for the word for life (ḥayāh). A taḥiyyah is a greeting, but its etymology implies that it is a prayer for a long and prosperous life for the one being greeted. The standard Islamic greeting, “As-Salāmu ‘Alaykum” (Peace be upon you), is the ultimate form of this prayer, as true life and prosperity are only found in a state of peace (salām).

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa 4:86 provides the specific etiquette for greetings: “And when you are greeted with a greeting (taḥiyyah), greet [in return] with one better than it or [at least] return it [in a like manner].” The classical interpretation is that this is a binding command. If one is greeted with “Peace be upon you,” one should respond with the better greeting, “And upon you be peace and the mercy of Allah” (Wa ‘Alaykum as-Salām wa Raḥmatullāh), or at the very least, return the same greeting. This rule was understood to apply to all forms of polite and kind address.

Thematic Context

This simple command about greetings is a profound part of the Surah’s theme of building a cohesive and affectionate community. Small acts of courtesy are the social fabric that binds people together. By legislating the etiquette of a greeting, the Qur’an shows that no detail is too small when it comes to fostering brotherhood and mutual respect. The principle of responding with something equal or better establishes a culture of positive reciprocity, where every interaction is an opportunity to increase the good and the love between people.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The principle of “responding with better” is a universal ethical teaching that has profound implications for modern communication, especially in the often-toxic environment of online discourse. It is a call to always elevate the conversation, to respond to negativity with grace, and to answer simple courtesy with greater courtesy. This Quranic rule provides a practical tool for de-escalating conflict and building positive relationships in any cultural context.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical application is simple yet powerful. Make a conscious effort to be the one who gives the better response. When someone smiles at you, smile back more warmly. When someone says a kind word, respond with an even kinder one. When someone sends a brief message, respond with a more thoughtful one. Applying this “rule of increase” to all our daily interactions can transform our relationships and make us a source of positivity and grace in the lives of others.

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87. Taqwā (تَقْوَىٰ) – God-consciousness / Piety

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Taqwā comes from the root و-ق-ي (Wāw-Qāf-Yā’), which means to protect or to shield oneself. Taqwā is the state of being so conscious and aware of God that it serves as a “shield” that protects one from His displeasure. It is often translated as “piety” or “fear of God,” but its core meaning is a vigilant, protective awareness of God’s presence and commands. A person who possesses taqwā is a muttaqī.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa opens with a command addressed to all of humanity: “O mankind, fear your Lord (ittaqū rabbakum)…” (4:1). The entire Surah, with its detailed laws and moral exhortations, is framed as a means to achieve taqwā. The classical understanding is that taqwā is the ultimate goal of all religious practice. It is not just an emotion, but a state of being that manifests in righteous action, particularly in upholding justice and respecting the limits (ḥudūd) set by God.

Thematic Context

Taqwā is the foundational spiritual theme that underpins all the legal and social themes of the Surah. Why should one be just to an orphan when no one is watching? Because of taqwā. Why should one fulfill the marriage covenant with integrity? Because of taqwā. It is the internal motivation and the moral compass that ensures the external laws of the religion are followed with sincerity. Without taqwā, the law becomes an empty shell.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern Islamic ethics, taqwā is seen as the key to solving a host of societal problems, from corruption to environmental destruction. It is a state of holistic accountability. The concept of “fear of God” as a foundation for wisdom and morality is a cornerstone of the Abrahamic traditions (e.g., “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom,” Proverbs 9:10). The Islamic concept of taqwā emphasizes the protective and consciousness-based aspect of this “fear.”

Practical Reflection & Application

Taqwā is a state that we must consciously cultivate. It is nurtured through the remembrance of God (dhikr), reflecting on His creation, and studying His word. A simple practical exercise is to try to go through the day with the constant awareness that God is watching. This simple thought—”God is watching me now”—can serve as a powerful “shield,” protecting us from committing sins and motivating us to perform good deeds.

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88. Tawbah (تَوْبَة) – Repentance

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Tawbah comes from the root ت-و-ب (Tā’-Wāw-Bā’), which means to return. Tawbah is the act of “returning” to God after having strayed into sin and disobedience. It is not simply saying “I’m sorry”; it is a complete process that involves: 1) Recognizing and feeling remorse for the sin. 2) Immediately ceasing the sinful act. 3) Having a firm resolve not to return to that sin in the future. 4) If the sin involved the rights of another person, making restitution to them. God’s name At-Tawwāb means He is the one who repeatedly accepts this “return.”

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa speaks of tawbah in several places. Verse 4:17-18 makes a crucial distinction: “The repentance accepted by Allah is only for those who do wrong in ignorance [or carelessness] and then repent soon after… But repentance is not accepted of those who continue to do evil deeds up until when death comes to one of them.” The classical view is that “soon after” means before the throes of death begin. The verses emphasize that the door to repentance is wide open throughout one’s life, but it is not a game to be played by intentionally sinning with the plan to repent later. The repentance must be sincere.

Thematic Context

The theme of tawbah is central to the Quranic concept of divine mercy and human fallibility. The Surah lays down many laws and warns of punishments, but it always balances this with the promise of forgiveness for those who sincerely repent. This creates a relationship with God that is based not on fear alone, but on a hopeful combination of awe of His justice and profound love for His mercy. It acknowledges that humans will make mistakes, and it provides a clear, dignified path back to a state of grace.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of repentance is central to all Abrahamic faiths. The Islamic concept of tawbah is notable for its directness. There is no need for a priestly intermediary or formal confession to another human being. The “return” is a direct and personal transaction between the individual and God. This empowers the individual, making them fully responsible for their own spiritual state. Modern psychology also recognizes the therapeutic power of acknowledging wrongdoing, making amends, and resolving to change—a process that closely mirrors the steps of tawbah.

Practical Reflection & Application

Tawbah should be a continuous state for the believer. We should not wait for a major sin to turn back to God. The practice of daily istighfār (seeking forgiveness) for sins we are aware of and those we are not is a way to keep the heart polished and the connection with God strong. When we do fall into sin, the principle of immediate repentance encourages us to get back up right away, clean ourselves off, and return to the path, rather than wallowing in guilt and despair, which is a trap of Satan.

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89. Tawakkul (تَوَكُّل) – Trust in God

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Tawakkul comes from the root و-ك-ل (Wāw-Kāf-Lām), which means to entrust, to rely upon, or to appoint as an agent. A wakīl is an agent, a trustee, or a guardian to whom one entrusts their affairs. Tawakkul is the spiritual state of completely entrusting one’s affairs to God and relying on Him alone, after having made the necessary practical efforts. It is active trust, not passive resignation.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, believers are repeatedly encouraged to have tawakkul. After giving a command, the Qur’an often concludes with the phrase, “And sufficient is Allah as a Disposer of affairs (Wakīlā)” (e.g., 4:81, 4:132, 4:171). This serves as a source of comfort and strength. Classical scholars explain the two wings of tawakkul: first, the believer must “tie their camel,” meaning they must exert their full effort and use all the means available to them. Second, after having done their part, they must entrust the outcome completely to God’s wisdom and power, freeing their heart from anxiety and worry.

Thematic Context

The theme of tawakkul is the psychological and spiritual anchor for the community of believers. The Surah gives many difficult commands that involve risk and uncertainty, such as migrating or fighting for justice. Tawakkul is the inner state that allows a believer to undertake these tasks with courage and serenity, knowing that the ultimate protector and disposer of their affairs is God Himself. It is the antidote to the fear and anxiety that can paralyze a person into inaction.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of trust or faith in a higher power is a cornerstone of many spiritual paths. The Islamic concept of tawakkul is notable for its balance between effort and reliance. It is a powerful antidote to both fatalism (the idea that one should do nothing because everything is predestined) and the arrogance of self-reliance (the idea that one is in complete control of one’s destiny). Modern psychology speaks of the benefits of an “internal locus of control” combined with “letting go” of outcomes, a mindset that closely mirrors the principle of tawakkul.

Practical Reflection & Application

Tawakkul is a practical skill to be developed. In any endeavor—whether it’s a job search, a difficult conversation, or a major life decision—the practice is to first do your homework: research, plan, and make your best effort. Then, consciously make a supplication, entrusting the outcome to God. This practice frees the heart from the immense burden of worrying about results that are ultimately outside of our control, allowing us to act with greater focus, courage, and peace.

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90. Tazkiyah (تَزْكِيَة) – Purification

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Tazkiyah comes from the root ز-ك-و (Zāy-Kāf-Wāw), which has two core meanings: to purify and to cause to grow. Tazkiyah is the process of purification that leads to spiritual growth and flourishing. It involves cleansing the self (nafs) from its blameworthy traits (like arrogance and greed) and cultivating its praiseworthy traits (like humility and generosity). It is the core of spiritual development.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa (4:49) contains a sharp critique of those who “claim purity for themselves” (yuzakkūna anfusahum), stating, “Rather, Allah purifies whom He wills.” The classical commentators explain that this is a condemnation of self-righteousness and spiritual arrogance. True purity is not something one can claim for oneself; it is a gift from God bestowed upon those who sincerely strive for it. One’s role is to make the effort to purify the soul, but the acceptance and the granting of that purity is from God alone.

Thematic Context

The theme of tazkiyah is central to the transformative purpose of the divine law. The laws and ethical commands in Surah An-Nisa are not merely for social engineering; they are a divine curriculum for the purification and development of the human soul. By struggling to be just, compassionate, and obedient, the believer undergoes a process of tazkiyah, growing closer to God and actualizing their highest spiritual potential. The ultimate purpose of religion is this inner transformation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of purification of the soul is a central goal in many spiritual traditions, from the catharsis of Greek philosophy to the path of sanctification in Christianity. The Islamic process of tazkiyat al-nafs is a sophisticated spiritual psychology, forming the core methodology of Sufism. In a modern context, it can be seen as a holistic program for personal development, integrating moral, ethical, and spiritual practices to achieve a state of inner peace and human flourishing.

Practical Reflection & Application

Tazkiyah is the work of a lifetime. It is the conscious and continuous effort to improve our character. A practical approach is to identify one blameworthy trait in oneself—such as anger, jealousy, or laziness—and to make a sincere, focused effort for a period of time to overcome it through specific actions, prayer, and self-monitoring. This gradual, focused work, combined with a sincere plea for God’s help, is the path of purification.

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91. ‘Udwān (عُدْوَان) – Transgression / Enmity

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word ‘Udwān comes from the root ع-د-و (‘Ayn-Dāl-Wāw), which means to pass beyond, to transgress, or to be an enemy. An enemy is called an ‘aduww. ‘Udwān signifies enmity, hostility, aggression, and the act of transgressing the proper limits of justice and righteousness. It is a state of active hostility and wrongdoing directed towards others.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, ‘udwān is consistently paired with sin (ithm) and disobedience. Believers are warned against cooperating in “sin and transgression” (al-ithmi wal-‘udwān). The act of unjustly consuming others’ property is described as “transgression and injustice” (‘udwānan wa ẓulman). The classical understanding is that ‘udwān is a key characteristic of the disbelievers and hypocrites, who have transgressed the bounds of their covenant with God and thus act with hostility towards the believers.

Thematic Context

The prohibition of ‘udwān is central to the Surah’s theme of establishing a just and peaceful social order. It is the direct antithesis of justice (‘adl), mercy (raḥmah), and kindness (iḥsān). The Surah aims to create a society free from aggression, exploitation, and hostility, where relationships are governed by mutual rights and respect. The condemnation of ‘udwān is a call to reject the law of the jungle in favor of the rule of divine law.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of ‘udwān is highly relevant in international law, where it corresponds to the concept of “aggression.” The Quranic prohibition against initiating hostility and transgression is a foundational principle of the Islamic ethics of war and peace. In interpersonal ethics, it is a warning against all forms of bullying, abuse, and exploitation. It is a comprehensive term for any behavior that crosses the line from legitimate self-interest into active hostility and wrongdoing against another.

Practical Reflection & Application

We must be vigilant to ensure that our own actions are free from any trace of ‘udwān. This means not taking what is not rightfully ours, not speaking to others in an aggressive or hostile manner, and not allowing our anger to lead us to transgress the bounds of fairness and decency. It is a call to be a peaceful and just presence in the world, one who heals and unites rather than one who harms and divides.

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92. Ulī al-Amr (أُولِي الْأَمْرِ) – Those in Authority

Linguistic Root & Etymology

This is a compound phrase. Ulī (أُولِي) means “those who possess” or “people of.” Al-Amr (الْأَمْرِ) comes from the root أ-م-ر (Alif-Mīm-Rā’), meaning “command, affair, or matter.” Thus, Ulī al-Amr means “those who possess authority” or “those entrusted with command over the affairs” of the community. It is a general term for leadership.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In the key verse of Surah An-Nisa 4:59, believers are commanded to obey “Allah, and obey the Messenger, and Ulī al-Amr from among you.” The classical Sunni interpretation is that this term refers to the legitimate political rulers (caliphs, sultans) and the religious scholars (‘ulamā’), as both are responsible for managing the affairs of the community. The verse continues by establishing a mechanism for dispute resolution: “And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger.” This establishes the Qur’an and Sunnah as the ultimate constitution to which even the rulers are subject.

Thematic Context

The concept of Ulī al-Amr is foundational to the Surah’s theme of creating a stable and well-ordered society. It establishes a clear chain of command and a framework for governance and jurisprudence. By commanding obedience to a legitimate, unified leadership, the Qur’an aims to prevent the internal fragmentation and chaos that would undermine the community’s strength and mission. However, this authority is explicitly conditional and constitutionally limited by the higher authority of God and His Messenger.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Who constitutes Ulī al-Amr in the context of a modern nation-state is a major question in contemporary Islamic political thought. The term is interpreted in various ways, from referring to the elected governments of Muslim-majority countries to the body of qualified religious scholars across the globe. The core principle remains relevant: that the Muslim community needs and should respect legitimate leadership, but that this leadership is always accountable to the principles of the Shari’ah. The verse provides a blueprint for a society based on the rule of law, where even the highest authorities are not above the foundational texts.

Practical Reflection & Application

This concept encourages a balanced approach to authority. It fosters a spirit of cooperation and respect for the leaders and scholars who manage the community’s affairs. At the same time, it empowers the individual believer to hold that leadership accountable to the standards of the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is a call to be an engaged and responsible citizen, one who contributes to social order while also having a clear criterion—divine revelation—for judging the justice and legitimacy of those in power.

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93. Ummah (أُمَّة) – Community

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ummah comes from the root أ-م-م (Alif-Mīm-Mīm), which means to aim for, to head towards, or to be a mother (umm). An ummah is a community of people who are united by a shared direction, purpose, or creed. It is not defined by race, ethnicity, or geography, but by a common faith and worldview that binds them together like a family from one “mother.”

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While the term ummah itself is not a keyword in Surah An-Nisa, the entire Surah is a blueprint for the construction and consolidation of the Muslim ummah. It addresses the believers as a collective (“O you who have believed”) and provides the laws and ethical principles that are meant to govern their life as a cohesive community. The classical understanding is that the commands of the Surah transformed the disparate, warring tribes of Arabia into a single, unified faith community.

Thematic Context

The creation of the ummah is the overarching sociological theme of the Surah. All the specific themes—justice for women and orphans, the laws of inheritance, the need for a unified leadership, the struggle against internal hypocrisy and external aggression—are components of this larger project. The goal is to create a model community that is built on the foundations of faith, justice, and mutual compassion, which can then serve as a witness to all of humanity.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of the ummah is a powerful idea of transnational solidarity in the modern Muslim world. It posits a spiritual and cultural connection between Muslims that transcends the boundaries of the nation-state. This ideal of a global faith community is sometimes in tension with modern nationalist identities. The concept of a “people” defined by faith and covenant rather than blood and soil is a key feature of the Abrahamic traditions, finding a strong parallel in the Jewish concept of Am Yisrael (the People of Israel).

Practical Reflection & Application

The ideal of the ummah encourages a sense of global solidarity and responsibility. It means feeling the pain of Muslims who are suffering in other parts of the world and feeling joy for their successes. It is a call to think beyond our local and national identities and to see ourselves as part of a single human family united by faith. Practically, this can translate into supporting international charities, staying informed about the affairs of the global community, and always praying for the well-being of all its members.

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94. Walī (وَلِيّ) – Guardian / Protecting Friend

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Walī (plural: awliyā’) comes from the root و-ل-ي (Wāw-Lām-Yā’), which has the core meaning of nearness or closeness. From this sense of nearness, the word walī derives several interconnected meanings: a guardian, a protector, an ally, a patron, or a close, protecting friend. It implies a relationship of proximity, care, and mutual support. God is the ultimate Walī of the believers.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the term is used in the context of the legal guardian of an orphan, who is responsible for protecting their property (4:6). It is also used in the context of justice for a murder victim, where the “heir who has a claim” (walī) has the right to either demand retribution or accept blood-money (based on principles elsewhere in the Qur’an). The term implies a position of trust and responsibility to care for and protect the rights of someone who is vulnerable or in need of representation.

Thematic Context

The concept of the walī is central to the Surah’s theme of creating a network of mutual care and social responsibility. It establishes that the strong have a duty of guardianship and protection over the weak. The community is envisioned not as a collection of competing individuals, but as an interconnected body where members are the “protecting friends” of one another. This applies at the family level (the guardian of the orphan) and the community level (the collective responsibility for justice).

Modern & Comparative Lens

The concept of legal guardianship (wilāyah) is a major topic in Islamic family law, particularly the role of the walī in a woman’s marriage. Traditional jurisprudence requires a walī (typically her father or a male relative) to consent to her marriage, seeing this as a form of protection. Modern reformers and many Muslims today debate whether this is an absolute requirement, with many arguing that a mature woman has the right to represent herself, in line with the broader Quranic principle of female legal agency.

Practical Reflection & Application

The spirit of being a walī is to be a “protecting friend” to those around us. It means looking out for the vulnerable, offering support to those who need it, and taking our responsibilities as parents, older siblings, or community members seriously. It is about fostering relationships based on nearness, trust, and mutual care. The ultimate goal is to be worthy of the wilāyah (friendship and protection) of God by acting as a walī to His creation.

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95. Wasiyyah (وَصِيَّة) – A Bequest / Will

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The term Wasiyyah comes from the root و-ص-ي (Wāw-Ṣād-Yā’), which means to enjoin, to command, or to entrust someone with a task. A wasiyyah is a bequest, a will, or a final testament through which a person enjoins their final wishes and instructions, particularly concerning the distribution of their property after death. It is an act of entrusting one’s legacy to the living.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, the wasiyyah is mentioned as a key component of estate distribution. The verses on inheritance (e.g., 4:11-12) repeatedly state that the fixed shares are to be distributed “after any bequest you may have made or debt.” Classical jurists have understood this to mean that bequests and debts have precedence over the distribution of inheritance shares. However, based on Prophetic traditions, they limited the bequest to a maximum of one-third of the total estate and stipulated that it cannot be made in favor of an heir who is already entitled to a fixed share, thus preventing any alteration of the divine formula of inheritance.

Thematic Context

The provision for wasiyyah connects to the Surah’s theme of comprehensive justice and individual responsibility. While God has legislated fixed shares (farā’iḍ) to ensure the rights of the core family, the wasiyyah provides a mechanism for the individual to exercise their agency and charity. It allows a person to bequeath a portion of their wealth to needy relatives not covered by the fixed shares, to friends, or to charitable causes, thereby earning a final reward and addressing needs beyond the scope of the mandatory inheritance laws.

Modern & Comparative Lens

In modern estate planning, the Islamic will or wasiyyah remains a crucial document. Contemporary scholars and lawyers work to ensure that these wills are drafted in a way that is compliant with both Islamic law and the legal systems of the countries in which Muslims reside. The concept of limiting the testator’s freedom (to one-third of the estate) contrasts with the principle of near-total testamentary freedom in many Western legal systems. This limitation in Islam is seen as a way to balance individual agency with the divine mandate to ensure the economic well-being of the immediate family.

Practical Reflection & Application

The institution of wasiyyah encourages a person to be thoughtful and proactive about the end of their life. It is a reminder to settle one’s affairs, both financial and spiritual. Drafting a will is not about being morbid; it is an act of responsibility and a final opportunity to do good. It prompts us to think: “What legacy do I want to leave? How can my wealth continue to do good in the world even after I am gone?”

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96. Waswasah (وَسْوَسَة) – Whispering

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Waswasah comes from the duplicated root و-س-و-س (Wāw-Sīn-Wāw-Sīn). This type of duplicated root often indicates a repeated or stealthy action. Waswasah means to whisper repeatedly in a secret, sly manner. In the Quranic context, it refers specifically to the evil, satanic whisperings or insidious suggestions that are injected into the hearts and minds of people by Shayṭān.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

While the word itself appears more explicitly in other surahs (like Surah An-Nas), the concept is central to the role of Shayṭān as described in Surah An-Nisa. When the Surah says Shayṭān desires to lead people “far astray” (4:60) or makes them “false promises” (4:120), this is achieved through the mechanism of waswasah. The classical understanding is that Shayṭān cannot force a person to do evil, but he can plant a seed of doubt, a tempting thought, or a sinful suggestion. This whisper is his primary weapon.

Thematic Context

The concept of waswasah is key to understanding the Quranic theme of the internal spiritual struggle (jihād al-nafs). The battleground for faith and morality is often the human heart and mind. The Surah’s commands to be just, generous, and obedient are constantly being challenged by these internal whisperings that suggest the opposite path of selfishness, miserliness, and rebellion. Recognizing these whispers as external, hostile suggestions is the first step to defeating them.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The idea of waswasah can be understood in modern psychological terms as intrusive thoughts, negative self-talk, or the cognitive distortions that lead to unethical behavior. The Islamic framework personifies the source of these negative whispers as Shayṭān, which provides a powerful method for dealing with them: one can externalize the thought (“This is not from me, it is a whisper from my enemy”) and actively seek refuge with a higher power (God) to dispel it. This can be a more effective coping strategy than simply trying to suppress the thought or attributing it entirely to oneself.

Practical Reflection & Application

The practical defense against waswasah is the remembrance of God (dhikr). It is said that when God is remembered, the whisperer (al-waswās) retreats. This involves consciously filling one’s mind and heart with the remembrance of God through prayer, recitation of the Qur’an, and supplication. It also involves being mindful of one’s thoughts and learning to recognize the signature of a satanic whisper—it typically leads to despair, arrogance, doubt, or sin—and immediately countering it by turning one’s focus back to God.

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97. Yatāmā (يَتَامَىٰ) – Orphans

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Yatāmā is the plural of yatīm, which comes from the root ي-ت-م (Yā’-Tā’-Mīm). The core meaning is to be alone or solitary. A yatīm in the human context is a minor child who has lost their father. The father is specified because he was traditionally the primary protector and provider for the family. In a broader sense, it can refer to any child who has lost one or both parents and lacks a primary caregiver.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

Surah An-Nisa opens with a powerful and detailed series of commands regarding the treatment of orphans (yatāmā). Verses 4:2, 4:6, and 4:10 constitute a veritable “charter of rights for the orphan.” The Surah commands guardians to give orphans their property, not to substitute bad for good, and not to consume their wealth. It sets up a system of testing their maturity before handing over their property and warns in the strongest possible terms that consuming an orphan’s wealth unjustly is like consuming fire into one’s belly.

Thematic Context

The protection of the orphan is the first and foremost application of the Surah’s central theme of social justice for the vulnerable. The state of a community’s moral health is measured by how it treats its most defenseless members. By legislating so forcefully and in such detail on the rights of orphans, the Qur’an establishes a foundational principle of Islamic society: power and authority are trusts (amānah) to be used for the protection of the weak, not for their exploitation.

Modern & Comparative Lens

The Quranic injunctions regarding orphans have inspired vast charitable networks throughout Muslim history and continue to do so today in the form of orphanages, sponsorships, and foundations. In a world with millions of orphans due to war, disease, and poverty, these verses are a timeless call to action. The ethical framework—which focuses not just on charity but on the preservation of the orphan’s property and dignity until they reach maturity—provides a holistic model for care that goes beyond mere sustenance.

Practical Reflection & Application

The command to care for orphans applies to society as a whole. Practically, this can be fulfilled by supporting organizations that care for orphans, sponsoring an orphan, or becoming a foster or adoptive parent. Even if one cannot do these things, the spirit of the command is to cultivate a heart of compassion for the most vulnerable in our society and to be a fierce advocate for their rights and well-being in whatever capacity we can.

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98. Ẓulm (ظُلْم) – Wrongdoing / Injustice

Linguistic Root & Etymology

The word Ẓulm comes from the root ظ-ل-م (Ẓā’-Lām-Mīm). The original meaning of the root is darkness (ẓulmah). From this, ẓulm derives its meaning of injustice or wrongdoing, because injustice is seen as placing something in a place where it does not belong, thus obscuring its true nature and creating a “darkness” where the light of truth and justice should be. It is a comprehensive term for all forms of injustice, oppression, and transgression.

Classical Exegesis (Tafsir)

In Surah An-Nisa, ẓulm is condemned in many forms. Consuming the property of orphans unjustly is a manifest form of ẓulm (4:10). The Surah criticizes those who remain in a land where they are oppressed (a form of ẓulm against the self) instead of migrating (4:97). The gravest form of ẓulm, however, is shirk (associating partners with God), which the Qur’an elsewhere calls “a great injustice” (ẓulm ‘aẓīm), because it is the ultimate act of putting something (creation) in the place of the Creator.

Thematic Context

Ẓulm is the primary evil that Surah An-Nisa seeks to eradicate. The entire legislative project of the Surah—from inheritance laws to marital rights to the rules of testimony—is designed to replace the darkness of pre-Islamic injustice (ẓulm al-jāhiliyyah) with the light of divine justice (‘adl and qisṭ). The theme is that a just society cannot be built until all forms of ẓulm, from the theological to the social and economic, are actively opposed.

Modern & Comparative Lens

Contemporary Islamic thinkers use the term ẓulm to analyze and critique systemic and structural injustice, such as political tyranny, economic exploitation, and social discrimination. It provides a powerful, divinely-sanctioned vocabulary for social criticism and activism. The concept is holistic, recognizing that injustice has three dimensions: injustice against God (shirk and disbelief), injustice against others (oppression, theft, etc.), and injustice against oneself (by committing sins that harm one’s own soul and lead to punishment).

Practical Reflection & Application

The fight against ẓulm begins with the self. We must first stop wronging our own souls by disobeying God. We must then ensure that we are not committing any injustice, however small, in our dealings with others—in our families, our workplaces, and our communities. Finally, the principle calls us to be allies of the oppressed (maẓlūm) and to stand against injustice wherever we see it, becoming agents for the light of justice in a world often darkened by wrongdoing.

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