🌱 Verses 2:1-5 — The Blueprint of Guidance: Defining the Pious

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 622-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses were revealed shortly after the Hijrah (migration) from Makkah to Madinah. The nascent Muslim community was no longer a persecuted minority but the foundation of a new state. They needed a constitution, a clear definition of their identity and purpose. These opening verses serve as the preface to this new chapter. The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) and the believers were establishing a society that included the Ansar (helpers from Madinah) and Muhajirun (emigrants from Makkah). This introduction lays down the foundational principles for who this guidance is for: the God-conscious (al-Muttaqin), setting the stage for all the laws and narratives to come.

Referenced Timeline: The Continuous Present. These verses describe the timeless qualities of a believer, applicable from the moment of revelation until the Day of Judgment.

“This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for those conscious of Allah.” (Qur’an 2:2)

• Primary evidence: The themes—belief in the unseen, establishing prayer, and spending from provisions—are foundational pillars for building a new community. This content is perfectly suited for the beginning of the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains that al-Muttaqin (the pious) are those who are “cautious of Allah’s punishment by abandoning what He has forbidden and acting upon what He has commanded.” He connects belief in the “unseen” (ghayb) to belief in Allah, His Angels, Books, Messengers, the Last Day, Paradise, Hell, and the divine decree—all core tenets of faith being solidified in the new community.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The new Muslim community (Muhajirun & Ansar)
• Function in Narrative: Thesis Statement / Introduction
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Scholarly Consensus

🔒 Verses 2:6-7 — The Sealed Hearts: Defining the Disbelievers

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 622-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After defining the believers, the discourse immediately turns to their antithesis. In Madinah, the message of Islam was not just a personal call but a public one with political and social implications. This brought out clear lines of opposition. These verses specifically address the staunch opponents, such as the leaders of Quraysh in Makkah who continued their hostility, and certain individuals in Madinah who openly rejected the Prophet’s (ﷺ) message from the outset. It provides a theological explanation for their persistent rejection, framing it as a consequence of their own arrogance and a divine seal placed upon their hearts, ears, and eyes.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah & Makkah. It describes the state of the active, declared opponents of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) at that time.

• Primary evidence: The direct address “whether you warn them or do not warn them” reflects the ongoing, and often frustrating, Dawah (invitation to Islam) efforts of the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari mentions that these verses were revealed concerning specific leaders of the confederates (Ahzab) against Islam and Jewish leaders in Madinah who, despite knowing the truth from their scriptures, rejected it out of pride and jealousy. The “sealing” is described as a direct result of their own disbelief and transgression.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and his opponents (Quraysh leaders, certain individuals in Madinah).
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the second category of humanity (the disbelievers).
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Tafsir Reports.

🎭 Verses 2:8-16 — The Disease of Two Faces: Exposing the Hypocrites

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 1-3 AH / 623-625 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The phenomenon of hypocrisy (nifāq) was unique to Madinah. In Makkah, there was no worldly benefit to pretending to be Muslim; it only brought persecution. In Madinah, however, Islam became the dominant socio-political force. Some individuals, led by figures like Abdullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul, feigned conversion to protect their status, wealth, or to sow discord from within. These verses were a direct divine exposé of this dangerous third group. They would sit with the Muslims, claiming to be believers, then meet with their allies in secret, mocking the faith. This section provided the believers with the vocabulary and theological framework to understand and beware of this internal threat.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a direct commentary on the socio-political dynamics unfolding in the city.

“And when they meet those who believe, they say, ‘We believe’; but when they are alone with their evil ones, they say, ‘Indeed, we are with you; we were only mockers.'” (Qur’an 2:14)

• Primary evidence: The very existence of the category of “hypocrites” (Munafiqun) is a hallmark of the Madinan period. The detailed description of their behavior (saying one thing, doing another) matches numerous accounts in the Seerah (prophetic biography).
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir provides extensive detail, linking these verses directly to Abdullah ibn Ubayy and his followers. He explains that their “deception” was ultimately against themselves, as they gained temporary worldly benefit at the cost of eternal punishment, a “painful bargain.”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community and the faction of Hypocrites (Munafiqun).
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the third, and most complex, category of humanity.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Historical & Tafsir Consensus.

🔥 Verses 2:17-20 — Parables of Light and Darkness: Illustrating Hypocrisy

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 1-3 AH / 623-625 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Continuing the discourse on the hypocrites, these verses provide two powerful parables to help the believers visualize their spiritual state. The Madinan community was a mix of sincere believers, open enemies, and this confusing group in the middle. Clear, powerful imagery was needed to make the abstract concept of hypocrisy tangible. These parables served as diagnostic tools. The first describes someone who benefits momentarily from the light of faith but whose own insincerity extinguishes it, leaving them in darkness. The second describes those caught in a spiritual storm, terrified and indecisive, trying to benefit from flashes of lightning (Islam’s success) while fearing the thunder (its obligations and trials).

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. The parables are timeless, but their immediate application was for the Muslims to understand the hypocrites in their midst.

• Primary evidence: Thematic continuation of the previous section on hypocrites. The use of detailed parables is a common feature in Madinan surahs to explain complex social and spiritual dynamics.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Qurtubi interprets the first parable as representing those who utter the Shahada (testimony of faith) and gain the “light” of protection and rights within the Muslim community, but because they lack true faith, this light is extinguished in the afterlife, leaving them in the “darkness” of Hell. The second parable represents their vacillation and confusion in this world.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community observing the hypocrites.
• Function in Narrative: Illustrating the spiritual state of the hypocrites through parables.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Scholarly Consensus.

🌍 Verses 2:21-22 — The Universal Call: A Challenge to All Mankind

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After categorizing the three main groups in Madinah (believers, disbelievers, hypocrites), the Qur’an now zooms out. The address shifts from specific groups to “O mankind!” (Yā ayyuhan-nās). This was a crucial pivot. In the diverse environment of Madinah—which included the Muhajirun, the Ansar, various Jewish tribes, and remaining polytheists—a universal call was needed to unite everyone under the singular principle of Tawhid (monotheism). This verse grounds the call to worship not in abstract theology but in tangible, universal experiences: the creation of humanity, the earth as a resting place, the sky as a canopy, and life-giving rain. It’s an appeal to reason and gratitude.

Referenced Timeline: The Continuous Present. It refers to the constant, observable signs of Allah’s creation as a basis for worship.

• Primary evidence: The shift to “O mankind” is characteristic of verses aiming for a broader audience beyond the immediate Muslim community, a key task in the early Madinan period. The argument from creation is a foundational Qur’anic method of calling to Tawhid.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas (RA) is reported to have said this was the first call of “Yā ayyuhan-nās” in the Qur’an, addressed to both believers and non-believers in Madinah. Tafsir al-Jalalayn succinctly states the argument: “Worship your Lord… so that you may be mindful [of His punishment]. He Who made the earth a couch for you… therefore do not set up rivals to God.”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: All inhabitants of Madinah and, by extension, all humanity.
• Function in Narrative: Broadening the call to Islam to a universal audience.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Tafsir Reports.

✍️ Verses 2:23-24 — The Ultimate Literary Challenge: Produce a Surah Like It

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the famous “challenge” verse (tahaddi). As the Qur’an’s influence grew in Madinah, so did the accusations from its opponents. They claimed Muhammad (ﷺ) was a poet, a soothsayer, or that he simply authored it himself. In a culture that prided itself on linguistic excellence and held poetry as its highest art form, this was a direct and devastating challenge. Allah (SWT) tells them that if they are truthful in their doubts, they should collaborate—call upon all their best poets, orators, and even their supposed gods—and produce a single chapter like it. This challenge was first issued in Makkah and is reiterated here in Madinah, demonstrating the continued claim of the Qur’an’s divine origin.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. It is a direct response to the accusations being leveled against the Prophet (ﷺ) at that time.

“And if you are in doubt about what We have sent down upon Our Servant [Muhammad], then produce a surah the like thereof and call upon your witnesses other than Allah, if you should be truthful.” (Qur’an 2:23)

• Primary evidence: The defense of the Qur’an’s divine origin was a constant theme in both Makkah and Madinah. Placing this challenge here, after the universal call to worship, serves to establish the authority of the vehicle of that call—the revelation itself.
• Classical tafsir: Fakhr al-Razi dedicates a significant portion of his tafsir to the concept of the Qur’an’s inimitability (I’jaz), explaining that its miracle lies not just in its eloquence but also in its prophecies, its scientific accuracy (relative to its time), its legal perfection, and its transformative effect on society.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and the doubters/opponents (polytheists, Jewish tribes).
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the miraculous and divine nature of the Qur’an.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Historical Context.

🌳 Verse 2:25 — The Promise of Paradise: A Glimpse of the Reward

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Immediately after the terrifying warning of Hellfire for those who reject the message, the Qur’an pivots to a message of hope and promise for those who accept it. This technique of pairing warning (tarhib) with encouragement (targhib) is a core feature of Qur’anic rhetoric. For the early Muslims in Madinah, who had sacrificed homes, wealth, and family for their faith, this promise of an eternal reward was a powerful motivator and a source of profound comfort. It framed their worldly struggles as a temporary price for an unimaginable, everlasting prize.

Referenced Timeline: Eschatological Time (The Future/Afterlife). It describes the state of believers in Paradise.

• Primary evidence: The immediate juxtaposition with the previous verse (the warning of Hell) is a clear structural pattern in the Qur’an. The description of Paradise is consistent with other early Madinan verses aimed at strengthening the faith of the community.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir notes that the fruits of Paradise will be similar in shape and color to worldly fruits, but entirely different and superior in taste. This is a mercy from Allah, so that the inhabitants will know what they are being given and desire it. He also emphasizes that “purified spouses” means they are free from all physical, spiritual, and moral impurities.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The believers (Muhajirun & Ansar).
• Function in Narrative: Balancing the previous warning with a promise, motivating the believers.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Structural.

🦟 Verses 2:26-27 — The Parable of the Gnat: No Example is Too Small for Allah

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): According to some exegetes (mufassirun), when the Qur’an presented parables involving seemingly “lowly” creatures like the fly (22:73) or the spider (29:41), the polytheists and some of the People of the Book mocked it, saying, “What does God intend by this example? It is beneath the dignity of a divine book.” This verse was revealed as a direct response. It asserts Allah’s (SWT) absolute right to use any example, no matter how small or large, to convey truth. The verse then pivots to explain that the effect of such parables is to polarize: it solidifies the faith of the believers, who see wisdom in it, and increases the misguidance of the defiantly disobedient (al-fasiqun).

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct rebuttal to criticism being leveled against the Qur’anic style.

• Primary evidence: The verse directly addresses the use of “parables” or “examples” (mathal), which connects it to the ongoing revelation and the reaction it was receiving. The description of the fasiqun fits the hypocrites and other covenant-breakers in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: As-Suddi, as quoted by Ibn Kathir, directly links this verse to the mockery following the revelation of the parables of the fly and the spider. He explains that the believers recognize the truth in these examples, while the disbelievers question them, and this very questioning becomes a cause for their further misguidance.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslims, and their critics (polytheists, hypocrites, some People of the Book).
• Function in Narrative: Defending the Qur’anic methodology and defining the characteristics of the willfully misguided.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🔄 Verses 2:28-29 — The Cycle of Life and Creation: A Proof of Resurrection

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After addressing the moral reasons for disbelief, the discourse returns to a core theological argument against it, specifically the denial of the resurrection. This was a major point of contention with the Arab polytheists. The argument presented here is one of analogy and power. It asks a stunningly direct question: “How can you disbelieve in Allah when you were lifeless and He brought you to life; then He will cause you to die, then He will bring you to life, and then to Him you will be returned?” It points to the miracle of one’s own existence as proof of the Creator’s ability to resurrect. It then broadens the scope to the creation of the entire cosmos, reinforcing Allah’s omnipotence.

Referenced Timeline: The Human Lifespan & The Beginning of Creation. It references the past (creation), the present (life), the future (death and resurrection), and the primordial past (creation of the heavens and earth).

• Primary evidence: The focus on the denial of resurrection is a theme that began in Makkah but continued to be important in Madinah, especially when addressing the remaining polytheists. The logical, creation-based argument is a hallmark of Qur’anic apologetics.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains the cycle: “you were lifeless” refers to being in the loins of one’s fathers, “He brought you to life” in the womb and then into the world, “He will cause you to die” at the end of one’s appointed term, and “He will bring you to life” on the Day of Resurrection. The evidence for the final step is the power demonstrated in the preceding steps and in the creation of the cosmos.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to those who deny the afterlife (polytheists).
• Function in Narrative: Providing a rational proof for the resurrection and divine power.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

👑 Verses 2:30-34 — The First Dialogue: Announcing Humanity’s Vicegerency

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The narrative now makes a dramatic shift to the story of humanity’s origin. After establishing the call to worship and the proofs of divine power, the Qur’an explains the purpose and station of humankind. This story serves as the ultimate prequel to all human history and divine law. In Madinah, where a new society was being formed, this narrative was crucial. It established the inherent dignity and responsibility of human beings as Allah’s “vicegerent” (khalīfah) on Earth. It also introduces the two fundamental forces that would define the human struggle: divine guidance (represented by knowledge given to Adam) and arrogant disobedience (represented by Iblis/Satan).

Referenced Timeline: Primordial Time / Pre-history. It describes the events of Adam’s (AS) creation before his placement on Earth.

“And [mention, O Muhammad], when your Lord said to the angels, ‘Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority.’ They said, ‘Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?’ Allah said, ‘Indeed, I know that which you do not know.'” (Qur’an 2:30)

• Primary evidence: The placement of the story of Adam here is deliberate. It follows the establishment of God’s right to be worshipped and serves as the charter for human existence, setting the stage for the subsequent history of prophets and laws, especially the long discourse on the Children of Israel that follows.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari discusses the meaning of khalīfah, explaining it as a successive authority, where generations follow one another in implementing God’s commands on Earth. He details the story of Iblis’s refusal, highlighting that his sin was not merely disobedience but kibr (arrogant pride), which led him to question the wisdom of Allah’s command.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Allah (SWT), the Angels, Adam (AS), Iblis.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the purpose of humanity and the origin of the conflict between guidance and evil.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Placement.

🍎 Verses 2:35-39 — The Fall and the First Repentance: The Paradigm of Sin and Mercy

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Continuing the story of Adam, these verses describe the test in Paradise, the temptation by Satan, the act of disobedience (eating from the forbidden tree), and, most importantly, the act of repentance. This narrative was profoundly educational for the new Muslim community. It taught them that making mistakes is part of the human condition, but the correct response is not despair or defiance (like Iblis) but immediate remorse, taking responsibility, and turning back to Allah (SWT) for forgiveness. This established the fundamental Islamic principle of Tawbah (repentance). The story culminates in their descent to Earth, not as a punishment in the absolute sense, but as the beginning of their intended role as vicegerents, now armed with the experience of sin and the knowledge of divine mercy.

Referenced Timeline: Primordial Time. The events in the Garden and the subsequent descent to Earth.

“Then Adam received from his Lord [some] words, and He accepted his repentance. Indeed, it is He who is the Accepting of repentance, the Merciful.” (Qur’an 2:37)

• Primary evidence: The story serves as the perfect preface to the history of Bani Israel which follows. It establishes the paradigm: Allah sends guidance, humanity forgets or disobeys, some repent and are saved, while others persist and go astray. This pattern will be repeated again and again.
• Classical tafsir: Mujahid and others, as cited by Ibn Kathir, state that the “words” Adam received were the prayer found in Qur’an 7:23: “Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves, and if You do not forgive us and have mercy upon us, we will surely be among the losers.” This prayer became a cornerstone of Islamic supplication.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Adam (AS), Eve (Hawwa), Allah (SWT), Satan.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the model for sin, repentance, and divine mercy.
• Evidence Level: Narrative Placement & Thematic Coherence.

📜 Verses 2:40-46 — The Call to Bani Israel: A Reminder of the Covenant

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This marks the beginning of a long and detailed address to the Children of Israel (Bani Israel), specifically the prominent Jewish tribes in and around Madinah (like Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza). After the Hijrah, the Muslims’ interaction with these tribes became a central feature of life in Madinah. They were the other major monotheistic community. These verses are an invitation and a reminder. The tone is initially gentle and persuasive. Allah (SWT) reminds them of the special favors He bestowed upon them—prophets, scriptures, salvation from Pharaoh—and calls them to fulfill their end of the covenant, which, from the Islamic perspective, culminates in accepting the final messenger, Muhammad (ﷺ), whose coming was foretold in their own books.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, while referencing the entire history of the Children of Israel from Prophet Ya’qub (Israel) onwards.

• Primary evidence: The direct address “Yā Banī Isrā’īl” is the clearest possible evidence. The content, which revolves around covenants and confirming previous scriptures, is perfectly suited to the context of Muslim-Jewish interaction in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that these verses, and the subsequent discourse, were revealed concerning the Jewish rabbis of Madinah, such as Abdullah ibn Suriya and Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf. They knew the Prophet’s (ﷺ) description was in the Torah but concealed it out of jealousy and fear of losing their leadership.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Initiating the long address to the Children of Israel, calling them to fulfill their covenant.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual & Overwhelming Historical Consensus.

🌊 Verses 2:47-50 — Grace and Deliverance: The Escape from Pharaoh

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The discourse continues to remind the Children of Israel of Allah’s specific favors. This passage recalls their most celebrated moment of salvation: their deliverance from the tyranny of Pharaoh (Fir’awn). The verse mentions the terrible oppression—the slaughtering of their sons and sparing of their women—and then the miraculous parting of the sea. This reminder served a dual purpose in Madinah. First, it was to soften their hearts by recalling Allah’s immense mercy upon their ancestors. Second, it was a subtle parallel to the Muslims’ own recent escape (Hijrah) from their oppressors in Makkah, framing both events within the same divine pattern of delivering believers from tyranny.

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th Century BCE (Exodus Narrative). It recounts the story of Prophet Musa (Moses) leading the Israelites out of Egypt.

“And [recall] when We parted the sea for you and saved you and drowned the people of Pharaoh while you were looking on.” (Qur’an 2:50)

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of Pharaoh and the parting of the sea. This is a core story from the Torah, and its retelling here is part of the dialogue with the People of the Book.
• Classical tafsir: Exegetes like Ibn Kathir narrate the story in detail, drawing from both Qur’anic and biblical traditions, to flesh out the historical context of the oppression and the miraculous escape. They emphasize that this was one of the greatest favors bestowed upon Bani Israel, making their subsequent disobedience even more egregious.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Reminding Bani Israel of a key historical salvation to encourage gratitude and acceptance of the new Prophet.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual & Historical Context.

🐄 Verses 2:51-54 — The Golden Calf: A Betrayal of Faith

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The Qur’an immediately pivots from the height of their salvation to the depth of their betrayal. Right after being miraculously saved, while their Prophet Musa (AS) was on Mount Sinai receiving the revelation (the Torah), they fashioned and worshipped a golden calf. This story was recounted to the Jews of Madinah to highlight a recurring pattern of behavior: a tendency to stray into idolatry and materialism even after receiving clear signs and divine favors. It served as a powerful warning against rejecting the clear signs brought by Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). The verse also introduces the severe nature of their required repentance: they were commanded to “kill one another” (the guilty among them), a stark sign of the gravity of their sin of shirk (polytheism).

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th Century BCE. The events at the foot of Mount Sinai following the Exodus.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of the “calf” (‘ijl) and the forty nights of Musa’s (AS) appointment on the mount. This is a direct reference to a well-known story in their own scriptures, retold to make a specific point.
• Classical tafsir: Tafsir al-Tabari explains that the command to “kill yourselves” meant that those who had not worshipped the calf were to execute those who had. This was a severe test of their obedience and a means of purifying their community from the crime of idolatry. Allah’s acceptance of their repentance after this showed His ultimate mercy.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Highlighting a major historical sin of Bani Israel to warn against repeating patterns of disobedience.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

⚡️ Verses 2:55-57 — Arrogant Demands and Divine Provisions

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section recounts another instance of the Israelites’ challenging and materialistic nature. After being forgiven for the Golden Calf incident, a group of their elders accompanied Musa (AS) to the mountain to formalize their repentance. Yet, even there, they made the audacious demand: “We will never believe you until we see Allah outright.” As a punishment for this spiritual arrogance, they were struck by a thunderbolt. Musa (AS) prayed for them, and Allah revived them, another sign of His mercy. The narrative then fast-forwards to their time in the wilderness, reminding them of the miraculous provisions of Manna and Salwa (a sweet, bread-like substance and quails) and the shade of the clouds, all of which they received despite their difficult behavior.

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th Century BCE. The events during the 40 years of wandering in the Sinai desert.

• Primary evidence: The mention of specific, well-known events from the Israelite desert narrative: the demand to see God, the thunderbolt, and the provision of Manna and Salwa.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir narrates that the seventy elders chosen to accompany Musa were struck down and then revived to show them both Allah’s might and His forgiveness. The Manna is described as a sweet substance that would appear on the trees, and the Salwa as a type of bird (quail) that would come to them in flocks, making it easy to catch.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Demonstrating the Israelites’ spiritual arrogance and Allah’s continued forbearance and provision.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

🌾 Verses 2:58-60 — Disobedience at the Gate and Water from the Rock

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The narrative of the Israelites’ transgressions continues. This passage describes the command given to them when they were about to enter a town (often identified as Jericho or Jerusalem). They were told to enter with humility, bowing at the gate, and to say “Hittah” (meaning ‘forgiveness’ or ‘relieve us of our burdens’). Instead, the rebellious among them mockingly changed the word and entered defiantly. As a punishment, a “plague from the sky” was sent upon them. The passage then contrasts this disobedience with another of Allah’s mercies: when they were thirsty in the desert, Musa (AS) was commanded to strike a rock with his staff, and twelve springs gushed forth, one for each of the twelve tribes of Israel.

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th-12th Century BCE. The period of the conquest of Canaan after the 40 years of wandering.

• Primary evidence: The specific details of the command to enter the town, the word “Hittah,” and the miracle of the twelve springs from the rock are all direct references to the Israelite historical narrative.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains that they changed “Hittah” to “Hintatun fi sha’rah” (a grain in a hair), a nonsensical phrase meant to mock the divine command. The “plague from the sky” is interpreted as a literal, deadly pestilence sent as a swift punishment for their combination of disobedience and mockery.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Providing an example of the Israelites’ mockery and alteration of commands, contrasted with Allah’s miraculous provision.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

🧅 Verse 2:61 — From Heavenly Food to Earthly Cravings: A Story of Ingratitude

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This single, dense verse encapsulates a major theme: the Israelites’ ingratitude and materialism. After being miraculously provided with heavenly Manna and Salwa, they grew tired of it and complained to Musa (AS). They demanded the common, inferior foods of the earth: “its herbs and cucumbers and garlic and lentils and onions.” Musa’s response is one of astonishment: “Would you exchange what is better for what is worse?” Because of this persistent ingratitude and their other sins—disbelieving in Allah’s signs and unjustly killing prophets—they were “stamped with humiliation and misery” and incurred the wrath of Allah.

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th Century BCE. During the 40 years of wandering in the Sinai desert.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of their request for common vegetables in place of Manna and Salwa is a direct reference to the narrative in the Torah (Numbers 11:4-6), retold here to emphasize the theme of ingratitude.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Qurtubi explains that their request was a sign of a base nature and a lack of spiritual fortitude. They yearned for the life of toil and subjugation they had in Egypt, with its familiar foods, rather than the life of freedom and divine provision they were being offered. The “humiliation and misery” is often linked to the Jizya (poll tax) and the state of being a scattered people (diaspora).

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Condemning the Israelites for their ingratitude, materialism, and grave historical sins.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

⚖️ Verse 2:62 — The Path of Salvation: A Universal Principle

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the long and harsh critique of the Children of Israel, this verse appears as a statement of universal divine justice. It seems to have been revealed in response to questions from the companions, such as Salman al-Farsi, who worried about the fate of the righteous Jews and Christians they knew before the advent of Islam. The verse lays down a general principle: anyone, from any community—be they from the believers (Muslims), Jews, Christians, or Sabians—who truly believes in Allah and the Last Day and does righteous deeds, will have their reward with their Lord. This was a radical statement of inclusivity, asserting that salvation is based on sincere faith and good works, not on nominal affiliation to a particular group.

Referenced Timeline: All of Human History. It lays down a timeless principle for salvation.

• Primary evidence: The structure of the verse itself, which lists multiple religious communities and provides universal criteria for salvation. Its placement after a long critique of one group suggests a clarifying or balancing function.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir cites a hadith where the companions asked the Prophet (ﷺ) about the fate of the followers of past prophets. This verse was revealed in response. He strongly asserts, along with the consensus of scholars, that after the sending of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), no path is acceptable to Allah except the path of Islam, as this verse must be understood in conjunction with others like Qur’an 3:85: “And whoever desires other than Islam as religion – never will it be accepted from him.”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslims, with reference to Jews, Christians, and Sabians.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the universal principle of divine justice and the criteria for salvation.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports (Asbab al-Nuzul) & Thematic Context.

⛰️ Verses 2:63-66 — The Covenant at the Mount and the Sabbath-Breakers

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The discourse returns to the history of Bani Israel’s covenant-breaking. This passage recalls the dramatic moment at Mount Sinai when Allah raised the mountain over their heads to take a firm covenant from them to adhere to the Torah. Despite this terrifying sign, they still turned away. The verses then provide a specific example of this covenant-breaking: the story of the Sabbath-breakers. A village by the sea was tested; fish would appear in abundance on the Sabbath (when fishing was forbidden) but not on other days. Some of them resorted to trickery (setting nets on Friday to collect on Sunday). As a punishment for this flagrant, deliberate disobedience, Allah turned them into “despised apes.”

Referenced Timeline: c. 13th Century BCE (Mount Sinai) and a later period in Israelite history (Sabbath-breakers).

“And you had already known about those who transgressed among you concerning the sabbath, and We said to them, ‘Be apes, despised.'” (Qur’an 2:65)

• Primary evidence: The specific references to the raising of the Mount (al-Ṭūr) and the transgression of the Sabbath (al-sabt) are clear markers of these historical Israelite narratives.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir clarifies that the transformation into apes was a literal, physical one, though they did not procreate and died out after a few days. The purpose was to make them a terrifying, public example of the consequences of mocking divine law. The story serves as one of the most severe warnings in the Qur’an.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Providing further examples of the Israelites’ breaking of their covenant and the severe consequences.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

🐄 Verses 2:67-73 — The Story of the Cow: A Lesson in Obstinacy

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the story that gives the Surah its name. A man among the Children of Israel was murdered, and they could not find the killer. They came to Musa (AS) for a divine ruling. Allah commanded them to sacrifice a cow (baqarah). Had they obeyed immediately, any cow would have sufficed. Instead, they responded with mockery (“Do you take us in ridicule?”) and then a series of pedantic, unnecessary questions: What is it like? What is its color? What is its exact description? With each question, the command became more specific and difficult to fulfill. Finally, they found the exact cow, sacrificed it, and a piece of it was used to strike the dead man, who was miraculously brought back to life to name his killer.

Referenced Timeline: An episode during the time of Prophet Musa (AS).

• Primary evidence: The unique and detailed nature of the story itself. Its placement within the long discourse to Bani Israel fits perfectly.
• Classical tafsir: Exegetes like al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir narrate the backstory of the murder and the subsequent dispute. They emphasize that the Israelites’ questioning was a form of disobedience and that they “were not near to doing it” even at the end, highlighting their deep-seated obstinacy. The miracle of reviving the dead is explicitly linked to the reality of the Day of Resurrection.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to the Jewish tribes of Madinah; a lesson for the Muslims.
• Function in Narrative: Illustrating the Israelites’ obstinacy and argumentative nature, and providing a proof for the resurrection.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual.

🪨 Verse 2:74 — The Hardening of Hearts: Worse than Stones

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse is the direct and devastating conclusion to the story of the cow. After witnessing one of the most incredible miracles—a murdered man being brought back to life to identify his killer—one would expect profound faith and awe. Instead, Allah (SWT) says, “Then your hearts became hardened after that, being like stones or even harder.” The verse explains that even stones can be responsive: rivers gush from them, they split open to release water, and some fall down in fear of Allah. Their hearts, however, remained unmoved. This was a final, damning verdict on their spiritual state at that time.

Referenced Timeline: Immediately following the events of the cow story, but also describing the ongoing spiritual condition of the people being addressed in Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The verse begins with “Then…” (Thumma), directly linking it as the consequence of the preceding story of the cow. The theme of hardened hearts is a recurring critique of Bani Israel in the Qur’an.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Qurtubi explains that a hard heart is one that is not affected by admonition, does not fear punishment, and does not accept the truth. He notes that the verse serves as a general warning to anyone whose heart becomes sealed against guidance, regardless of their religious affiliation.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Children of Israel (both historical and contemporary).
• Function in Narrative: Providing the moral and spiritual conclusion to the story of the cow.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

🗣️ Verses 2:75-82 — Corrupted Scriptures and Broken Trust

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The address now shifts to the Muslim community, asking them a rhetorical question: “Do you covet [the hope] that they will believe you…?” This was revealed to manage the expectations of the believers, who were earnestly hoping that the People of the Book in Madinah would accept Islam. The verse explains why this is unlikely: a faction among their ancestors would listen to the word of God (the Torah) and then deliberately distort it (yuharrifūnahu). The passage describes the hypocrisy of some of the contemporary Jews in Madinah: they would profess belief when with Muslims but then privately tell each other not to share the knowledge from their scriptures that confirmed Muhammad’s (ﷺ) prophethood, lest the Muslims use it as an argument against them. The section concludes by condemning both the scholarly elite who write and alter the scripture for a small price and the common folk who follow them blindly.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, referencing historical practices of their religious leaders.

• Primary evidence: The direct address to the believers (“Do you covet…?”) and the description of the behavior of the Jewish tribes (“when they meet those who believe…”) are clear indicators of the Madinan context. The accusation of tahrīf (distortion) is a central theme of these interactions.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas, as quoted in Tafsir al-Tabari, explains that this refers to the Jewish rabbis who would alter the description of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) in their texts from tall and dark-eyed to short and blue-eyed, in order to deny his claim. The “small price” refers to the gifts and stipends they received from their followers for maintaining the status quo.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslims in dialogue with the Jewish tribes.
• Function in Narrative: Managing Muslim expectations and accusing some People of the Book of deliberately distorting scripture.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Historical & Tafsir Consensus.

🤝 Verses 2:83-86 — The Covenant of Kin and its Betrayal

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage reminds the Children of Israel of another, more universal covenant they took: to worship none but Allah, to be good to parents and relatives, orphans, and the needy, to speak good to people, and to establish prayer and give charity. However, it immediately points out their failure to uphold it. More specifically, it condemns a practice that was happening in Madinah right before the Prophet’s (ﷺ) arrival. The Jewish tribes of Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir had allied themselves with rival pagan Arab tribes (Aws and Khazraj, respectively). They would fight and kill each other in inter-tribal warfare, driving each other from their homes—a direct violation of their covenant. Then, hypocritically, if a Jew was taken captive, they would pool their money to ransom him, claiming it was a religious duty. The Qur’an exposes this glaring contradiction: “Do you believe in part of the Scripture and disbelieve in part?”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary and pre-Islamic Madinah (Yathrib), while referencing the ancient covenant from the time of Musa (AS).

• Primary evidence: The specific details of fighting each other, driving each other from homes, and then ransoming captives perfectly match the historical accounts of the inter-tribal warfare in Yathrib before the Hijrah.
• Classical tafsir: As-Suddi, as cited by Ibn Kathir, provides a detailed account of these alliances and how Banu Qurayza (allied with Aws) would fight Banu Nadir (allied with Khazraj). He explains that the verse was a direct rebuke for this hypocritical and destructive behavior.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Jewish tribes of Madinah (specifically Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir).
• Function in Narrative: Exposing the hypocrisy of believing in some parts of the scripture while ignoring others.
• Evidence Level: Specific Historical Event & Tafsir Consensus.

✉️ Verses 2:87-91 — Rejecting the Truth They Knew

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses delve into the psychology of the rejection of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) by many of the People of the Book in Madinah. The passage reminds them that they were given the Book (Torah) and a succession of messengers, including Jesus (‘Isa), son of Mary, whom they also rejected. The key point is in verse 89: before the Prophet’s (ﷺ) arrival, the Jews of Madinah would pray for a victory over the local polytheist Arabs, saying that a final prophet was coming whom they would follow to defeat their enemies. But when that very Prophet came—the one they recognized—they disbelieved in him out of arrogance and tribalism. Their rejection is framed as a “miserable exchange” for their souls. When invited to believe in the Qur’an, their excuse was, “We believe in what was sent down to us,” a statement of pure tribal chauvinism, which the Qur’an refutes by asking: if that’s true, why did your ancestors kill the prophets of God?

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, referencing the period just before the Prophet’s arrival and the entire history of Israelite prophets.

“And when there came to them a Book from Allah confirming that which was with them—although before that they used to pray for victory against those who disbelieved—but when there came to them that which they recognized, they disbelieved in it. So the curse of Allah is upon the disbelievers.” (Qur’an 2:89)

• Primary evidence: The specific historical detail about them “praying for victory” against the polytheists by invoking the coming of a new prophet is a very precise context marker for pre-Islamic Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Ishaq, in his Sira, records traditions from the Ansar confirming that they had heard the Jews of Madinah speak of the imminent arrival of a prophet. This verse, when revealed, made perfect sense to them and was a powerful reason for their own acceptance of Islam.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Explaining the reasons for the rejection of the Prophet (ﷺ) by those who should have been the first to believe.
• Evidence Level: Strong Historical & Tafsir Reports.

💔 Verses 2:92-96 — Clinging to Life, Forsaking Faith

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The argument against the Children of Israel continues, challenging their claims to faith. The passage reminds them again of the Golden Calf incident, which happened right after Musa (AS) brought them clear signs, proving their claim to “only believe in what was sent to us” is false. Then, verse 93 recalls the covenant at Mount Sinai, where they verbally agreed (“We hear”) but their hearts were set on disobedience (“we disobey”). The Qur’an then issues a direct challenge to the Jews of Madinah: “If the home of the Hereafter with Allah is for you alone, then wish for death, if you should be truthful.” This was a dare, a Mubahala. If they were so sure of their exclusive path to Paradise, they should have no fear of death. The Qur’an predicts their response: they will never wish for it because of their sins, and in fact, they are the most “greedy of life” of all people.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with references to the time of Musa (AS).

• Primary evidence: The direct challenge (“then wish for death”) is a specific type of polemical confrontation that marks the intense debates of the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that if the Jews had wished for death, every one of them would have choked on his saliva and died. Their refusal to do so was a clear sign from Allah. The verse highlights that their love for the world had superseded their supposed love for the Hereafter.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Challenging the sincerity of their faith and exposing their extreme love for worldly life.
• Evidence Level: Specific Event & Tafsir Consensus.

😇 Verses 2:97-101 — Enmity Towards Angels and a Rejected Book

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses were revealed in response to a specific incident. A group of Jewish rabbis, including Abdullah ibn Suriya, came to question the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). After he answered their questions correctly, they asked one final thing: “Which angel brings you the revelation?” He replied, “Gabriel (Jibrīl).” They responded, “He is our enemy among the angels! He is the one who brings down punishment and warfare. If it had been Michael (Mīkāl), who brings mercy and rain, we would have believed you.” This passage is a direct divine rebuttal to this absurd excuse. It states that Jibril only brings down the Qur’an by Allah’s permission, confirming previous scriptures. Therefore, enmity towards Jibril is enmity towards Allah Himself, and His other angels like Michael, as they are all just obedient servants carrying out His command.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct response to a specific debate.

“Say, ‘Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel – it is [none but] he who has brought it down upon your heart, [O Muhammad], by permission of Allah, confirming that which was before it and as guidance and good tidings for the believers.'” (Qur’an 2:97)

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of Jibril and Mikal by name, and the refutation of enmity towards them, directly corresponds to the well-documented Asbab al-Nuzul (reason for revelation) for this verse.
• Classical tafsir: This story is widely reported in the books of Tafsir, including those of al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, who cite Ibn Abbas. They explain that the Jews’ supposed enmity with Jibril stemmed from their belief that he had revealed the secrets of their sins to past prophets and was responsible for the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and Jewish rabbis from Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Rebutting a specific, flimsy excuse for disbelief and affirming the unity of the divine command.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🧙‍♂️ Verses 2:102-103 — The True Story of Magic, Solomon, and Satanic Deception

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This complex verse addresses another claim made by the Jews of Madinah. To discredit the wisdom and power of Prophet Sulayman (Solomon), they claimed he was a sorcerer who controlled the winds and the jinn through magic. Furthermore, they had delved into occult practices, attributing them to divine sources. This verse corrects the historical record and clarifies the Islamic position on magic. It states: 1) Sulayman never disbelieved by practicing magic. 2) It was the devils (shayāṭīn) who taught magic. 3) The verse also mentions a specific historical test in Babylon, where two angels, Harut and Marut, were sent to teach magic as a trial from God, explicitly warning people, “We are only a trial, so do not disbelieve.” People learned from them spells to separate a man from his wife, but they could harm no one except by Allah’s permission. The verse concludes that those who engage in magic have sold their souls for a worthless price.

Referenced Timeline: The time of Prophet Sulayman (c. 10th Century BCE) and an even earlier period in Babylon.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of Sulayman, Babylon, Harut, and Marut. This verse tackles a very specific set of historical and theological claims that were clearly in circulation in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: There is extensive discussion among commentators about Harut and Marut. The dominant view is that they were indeed angels sent as a trial, to test who would learn the knowledge for evil and who would heed the warning and abstain. Ibn Kathir emphasizes that the devils had taken books of magic and buried them under Sulayman’s throne, and after his death, claimed he had used them to gain his power. This verse was a divine refutation of that lie.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community and the Jewish tribes of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Correcting the historical record about Prophet Sulayman and definitively forbidding the practice of magic.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🗣️ Verses 2:104-105 — The Etiquette of Address: A Lesson in Respect

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3 AH / 625 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is a fascinating example of how the Qur’an guided the day-to-day interactions of the early Muslim community. The believers, in their eagerness to learn, would sometimes call out to the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) using the word “Rā’inā,” which in Arabic means “look at us” or “attend to us.” However, some of the Jews of Madinah realized that by slightly twisting their tongues, they could make this word sound like a Hebrew insult or the Arabic word “ru’ūnah” (meaning foolishness or recklessness). They used this ambiguous word to subtly mock the Prophet (ﷺ). Allah (SWT) revealed this verse to put a stop to it, commanding the believers to stop using the ambiguous word “Rā’inā” and instead use the clear and respectful word “Unẓurnā,” which also means “look at us” or “wait for us.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct ruling on social etiquette.

• Primary evidence: The specific prohibition of one word (“Rā’inā”) and the command to use another (“Unẓurnā”) is the clearest possible evidence of a specific contextual reason for revelation.
• Classical tafsir: This reason for revelation is universally agreed upon by commentators like Ibn Kathir and al-Tabari. They narrate that the Jews used this word play as a form of hidden insult, and this verse was revealed to foil their plot and educate the Muslims.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The believers and some of the Jews of Madinah.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing proper etiquette for addressing the Prophet (ﷺ) and foiling mockery.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Universally-Agreed Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🔄 Verses 2:106-107 — The Principle of Abrogation: Divine Wisdom in Revelation

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The concept of abrogation (naskh), where a later divine ruling supersedes an earlier one, was a major point of attack by the opponents of Islam in Madinah. They would say, “Look at Muhammad! He commands his companions to do something one day and forbids it the next. This can’t be from God.” This verse was revealed to explain the divine wisdom behind this process. It states that whenever Allah abrogates a verse or causes it to be forgotten, He replaces it with something better or at least similar. This is a sign of His ultimate power and wisdom, as He knows what is best for humanity at any given time. The revelation was gradual, and the laws were introduced in stages, appropriate for the development of the community.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. It provides a theological framework for understanding the process of revelation itself.

• Primary evidence: The verse explicitly uses the term “naskh” (abrogation), directly addressing the theological issue. Its placement here often follows discussions of Jewish law, implying a context of comparing the new Shari’ah with the old.
• Classical tafsir: Scholars of Tafsir and Usul al-Fiqh (Principles of Jurisprudence) use this verse as the primary proof-text for the doctrine of abrogation. Ibn Kathir explains that “better” can mean easier for the people or containing a greater reward. “Similar” means of a comparable level of difficulty or reward.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community and their critics (Jews, polytheists).
• Function in Narrative: Explaining the divine wisdom behind the principle of abrogation (naskh).
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual & Thematic.

❓ Verses 2:108-110 — A Warning Against Vexatious Questioning

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage addresses a tendency that was developing among some Muslims, possibly influenced by the argumentative style of the People of the Book. They began asking the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) unnecessary, hypothetical, or challenging questions, similar to the way the Israelites had questioned Musa (AS). Some reports suggest a specific incident where a man asked the Prophet, “Who is my real father?” or others asked for miracles on demand. This verse was a stern warning: “Or do you intend to ask your Messenger as Moses was asked before?” It equates this kind of questioning with trading faith for disbelief. The passage then reveals the true motivation of the People of the Book who encouraged this behavior: they wish to turn the believers back to disbelief out of sheer envy. The Muslims are advised to respond with patience and forgiveness (“pardon and overlook”) until Allah’s command comes, and to focus on the basics: establishing prayer and giving charity.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with a direct comparison to the time of Prophet Musa (AS).

• Primary evidence: The direct comparison to the questioning of Musa is a clear textual link. The themes of envy from the People of the Book and the command to patience are hallmarks of the Mid-Madinan period, where relations were tense but not yet at the point of open, large-scale conflict.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators mention several possible incidents for the revelation of this verse, all revolving around inappropriate questions asked of the Prophet (ﷺ). The lesson is general: to avoid the kind of questioning that seeks to test, challenge, or create difficulty, rather than genuinely seeking knowledge.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, with a warning about the influence of the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Warning the Muslims against excessive questioning and advising patience towards their antagonists.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🎟️ Verses 2:111-113 — The Rejection of Religious Exclusivity

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage tackles the claims of religious exclusivity being made by the Jewish and Christian communities in Madinah and the surrounding regions. The verse states their claim plainly: “And they say, ‘None will enter Paradise except one who is a Jew or a Christian.'” The Qur’an dismisses this as “their own wishful thinking” (amāniyyuhum) and demands proof: “Produce your proof, if you are truthful.” It then lays down the universal, non-sectarian condition for salvation: “Whoever submits his face [himself] to Allah while he is a doer of good.” The passage concludes by highlighting their own internal contradictions: the Jews say the Christians have no basis, and the Christians say the Jews have no basis, even though they both read the Scripture. This hypocrisy, the Qur’an notes, is similar to the claims of the ignorant polytheists.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct response to the theological claims of other monotheistic faiths.

• Primary evidence: The explicit quotation of the exclusive claims (“None will enter Paradise except one who is a Jew or a Christian”) is a clear sign that this verse is engaging in a direct polemical debate with these communities.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains that this verse refutes the baseless claims of both groups and establishes that the key to salvation is sincerity to Allah (submitting one’s face) and following the messenger with good deeds. After the coming of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), this means sincere Islam and following his Sunnah.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Addressed to Muslims, concerning the claims of Jews and Christians.
• Function in Narrative: Refuting claims of religious exclusivity and stating the universal conditions for salvation.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Explicit Textual.

🕌 Verses 2:114-115 — The Sanctity of Worship and God’s Omnipresence

Estimated placement in timeline: Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6-7 AH / 628 CE) or Early Madinan — Confidence: Medium (70%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): There are two primary contexts suggested for these verses. The first, and more widely cited, is the action of the Quraysh polytheists in Makkah, who prevented the Prophet (ﷺ) and the Muslims from entering the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram) to perform Umrah in the year of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. The verse asks, “And who are more unjust than those who prevent the name of Allah from being mentioned in His mosques and strive toward their ruin?” The second possible context is earlier, relating to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans, or even companions who were unsure which way to pray in the dark. Verse 115, “And to Allah belong the east and the west. So wherever you turn, there is the Face of Allah,” serves as a profound consolation. It teaches that while specific directions (Qiblah) are important for ritual unity, Allah’s presence is not confined to a single building or direction.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Makkah (Quraysh) or Historical Jerusalem (Romans). Verse 115 is a timeless theological statement.

• Primary evidence: The mention of preventing worship in “mosques” (masājid) and the theme of directionality (“wherever you turn”). The link to Hudaybiyyah is strong thematically, though some scholars place it earlier, relating it to the change of the Qiblah.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir presents both views but leans towards the context of the Quraysh preventing access to the Ka’bah. He explains that verse 115 was also used by the companions as a basis for the validity of prayer when the Qiblah is unknown or when praying voluntary prayers while traveling on a mount.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community and their opponents (Quraysh).
• Function in Narrative: Condemning those who prevent worship and affirming God’s omnipresence.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports with multiple possibilities.

👨‍👦 Verses 2:116-117 — Refuting the Claim that God has a Son

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage directly confronts a core theological claim of the Christians, and to a lesser extent, some Jewish and pagan Arab beliefs: that God has a son. The verse quotes their claim, “They say, ‘Allah has taken a son,'” and immediately refutes it with the declaration, “Exalted is He!” (Subḥānahu). The Qur’anic argument is twofold. First, it is beneath God’s majesty to need a son; He is self-sufficient, and “to Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and earth.” The relationship is one of Creator and creation, not father and son. All of creation is “devoutly obedient to Him.” Second, it highlights His creative power: He is the “Originator of the heavens and the earth. When He decrees a matter, He only says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is.” A being with such power has no need for the biological process of procreation.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct refutation of Christian and other theologies.

• Primary evidence: The explicit refutation of the “son of God” doctrine is a clear marker of polemical engagement with Christianity. This became a more prominent theme as Islam’s reach expanded.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators emphasize that this verse refutes Christians who made this claim about Jesus, some Jews who made it about ‘Uzayr (Ezra), and the pagan Arabs who claimed the angels were the daughters of God. The verse is a comprehensive statement against any form of divine partnership or progeny.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslims in dialogue with Christians and others.
• Function in Narrative: Asserting the absolute oneness and self-sufficiency of Allah (Tawhid) and refuting the concept of a divine son.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual & Thematic.

🗣️ Verses 2:118-121 — Demands for a Sign and the Limits of Guidance

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3 AH / 625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The discourse now turns to a demand made by the “unlettered” polytheists of Makkah and their sympathizers in Madinah. They asked, “Why does Allah not speak to us or a sign come to us?” This was a demand for a direct, personal miracle or a direct conversation with God, similar to the demands made by past nations. The Qur’an responds by saying that this is not a new request; “people before them said the same.” It clarifies the role of the Prophet (ﷺ): he has been sent with the truth as a “bringer of good tidings and a warner,” but he is “not responsible for the companions of Hellfire.” Guidance is a choice. The passage concludes by stating that the Jews and Christians will never be pleased until the Prophet (ﷺ) follows their specific religion, and warns that true guidance is only Allah’s guidance. Sincere People of the Book are those who “recite the Book as it should be recited”; they are the ones who will believe in the final revelation.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah & Makkah, with parallels to all of prophetic history.

• Primary evidence: The quotation of the demand (“Why does Allah not speak to us?”) and the direct address to the Prophet (ﷺ) about his responsibilities. The mention of the attitudes of the Jews and Christians places it firmly in the Madinan context.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari connects this verse to the demands of the Quraysh. He explains that the phrase “those who recite the Book as it should be recited” refers to those among the People of the Book who study their scriptures honestly, without distortion, and whose sincere study leads them to recognize and accept the truth of Islam.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ), the Muslim community, polytheists, and the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Refuting demands for miracles, defining the Prophet’s role, and setting realistic expectations for interfaith relations.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Tafsir Reports.

✨ Verses 2:122-123 — A Final Reminder and a Stark Warning

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section serves as a bookend to the long discourse directed at the Children of Israel. Verse 122 is a near-exact repetition of verse 47: “O Children of Israel, remember My favor which I have bestowed upon you and that I preferred you over the worlds.” This repetition brings the entire argument full circle, reminding them one last time of their privileged history. However, this final reminder is immediately followed by a much starker and more final warning in verse 123 about the Day of Judgment. This verse is more absolute than its parallel in verse 48. It emphasizes that on that Day, there will be absolutely no intercession, no compensation, no ransom, and no help. The repetition drives home the point that their ancestral privilege will not save them; only their own personal faith and deeds will matter.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, referencing their past history and the future Day of Judgment.

• Primary evidence: The repetition of verse 47 serves as a clear structural marker, indicating the conclusion of a major thematic section. The intensified warning about the Last Day provides a sense of finality.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators note that the repetition is for emphasis and to mark the end of one discourse before transitioning to the next major topic: the legacy of Prophet Ibrahim (AS). The absolute negation of intercession here is understood to be for the disbelievers; other verses and hadith confirm that a limited, divinely-permitted form of intercession will exist for believers.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Children of Israel.
• Function in Narrative: Concluding the long discourse to Bani Israel with a final reminder and a severe warning about the Day of Judgment.
• Evidence Level: Structural & Thematic.

🕋 Verses 2:124-129 — The Legacy of Abraham: A New Spiritual Lineage

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After concluding the long address to the Children of Israel, the Qur’an now shifts to the figure of Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), who is the revered ancestor of both the Israelites (through his son Ishaq/Isaac) and the Arabs (through his son Isma’il/Ishmael). This was a brilliant strategic move in the discourse. By focusing on Ibrahim, the Qur’an bypasses the legacy of Musa and the Torah, which had become a point of contention, and goes back to the shared, pure, monotheistic root. The verses narrate how Ibrahim was tested by Allah and fulfilled his trials, becoming a leader (Imam) for all mankind. It recounts him and Isma’il raising the foundations of the Ka’bah in Makkah and offering a powerful prayer for a nation of Muslims to be raised from their progeny, and for a messenger to be sent to them. This prayer is a direct prophecy of the coming of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).

Referenced Timeline: c. 19th Century BCE. The life and trials of Prophet Ibrahim (AS) and the building of the Ka’bah.

“And [mention] when Abraham was tried by his Lord with commands and he fulfilled them. [Allah] said, ‘Indeed, I will make you a leader for the people.’ [Abraham] said, ‘And of my descendants?’ [Allah] said, ‘My covenant does not include the wrongdoers.'” (Qur’an 2:124)

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of Ibrahim, Isma’il, and the raising of the foundations of the “House” (al-Bayt, the Ka’bah). The content is a direct ideological bridge between the critique of the Israelites and the establishment of a new, Makkah-centric spiritual focus.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains that the prayer of Ibrahim (“Our Lord, and send among them a Messenger from themselves…”) was answered in the form of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). The Prophet (ﷺ) himself is reported to have said, “I am the prayer of my father Ibrahim and the good tidings of my brother ‘Isa (Jesus).”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Muslims, with reference to the People of the Book and the Arab polytheists.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the Muslim community as the true heirs to the Abrahamic legacy and laying the groundwork for the change of Qiblah.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Overwhelming Scholarly Consensus.

☪️ Verses 2:130-135 — The Religion of Abraham: A Call to Universal Submission

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Continuing the focus on Ibrahim (AS), these verses define his religion (Millah) as the ideal path. The question is posed: “And who would be averse to the religion of Abraham except one who makes a fool of himself?” His path is described with the word that defines the faith: “When his Lord said to him, ‘Submit (aslim),’ he said, ‘I have submitted (aslamtu) to the Lord of the worlds.'” This is the essence of Islam. The passage then recounts the deathbed exhortation of Ibrahim and Ya’qub (Jacob/Israel) to their sons, telling them to die only in a state of submission (as Muslims). The section culminates in a direct response to the Jewish and Christian claim that one must follow their specific path to be guided. The Qur’an commands the believers to declare their own, more inclusive creed: “We believe in Allah and what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Descendants, and what was given to Moses and Jesus and what was given to the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and we are Muslims [in submission] to Him.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, referencing the time of Ibrahim (AS) and Ya’qub (AS).

• Primary evidence: The focus on the “Religion of Abraham” and the command to the believers to state their creed (“Say, [O believers], ‘We have believed…'”) are clear signs of community definition and identity-building in the Madinan context.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators note that the deathbed scene of Ya’qub asking his sons, “What will you worship after me?” was a direct rebuttal to the Jewish claim that he had enjoined Judaism upon them. The Qur’an clarifies that he enjoined the universal worship of the one God, the God of their fathers Ibrahim, Isma’il, and Ishaq.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, defining their faith in relation to the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Defining the essence of Islam as the timeless religion of all prophets and stating the Muslim creed.
• Evidence Level: Explicit Textual & Thematic.

🌍 Verses 2:136-141 — One Ummah, One God: The Final Word on Abrahamic Faith

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2 AH / 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section concludes the argument about the Abrahamic legacy. It begins with the great declaration of faith in all prophets without distinction, which serves as the Muslim’s primary identity. It then states a clear principle: “So if they believe in the same as you believe in, then they are rightly guided; but if they turn away, they are only in dissension.” This places the onus on others to align with this universal, prophetic creed. The passage introduces the concept of God’s “coloring” or “baptism” (Ṣibghat Allāh), a spiritual identity superior to any earthly or ritualistic one. It ends by challenging the People of the Book directly: “Do you argue with us about Allah, while He is our Lord and your Lord?” It reminds them that everyone is responsible for their own deeds and that the prophets they claim as their own—Ibrahim, Isma’il, Ishaq, Ya’qub—were not “Jews or Christians” in the sectarian sense, but were submitters to God (Muslims).

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with a final summation of the history of the Patriarchs.

• Primary evidence: The direct address and challenge (“Do you argue with us…?”) and the final, definitive statement about the faith of the patriarchs. This concludes the entire thematic block on the Abrahamic legacy.
• Classical tafsir: Tafsir al-Jalalayn explains Ṣibghat Allāh as “the religion of Allah,” which has been made manifest in believers through their acts of faith, just as a dye is manifest on a cloth. It is a permanent and defining characteristic.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Concluding the re-appropriation of the Abrahamic narrative and asserting the independent identity of the Ummah.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

🧭 Verses 2:142-144 — The Change of Qiblah: A New Direction for the Ummah

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Rajab, 2 AH / February 624 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is one of the most significant and precisely dated revelations in the Qur’an. For the first 16-17 months after the Hijrah, the Muslims in Madinah prayed facing Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis), the Qiblah of the Jews. This was a source of mockery for the Jews (“They follow our Qiblah but oppose our religion”) and a cause of inner turmoil for the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), who longed to face the Ka’bah built by his ancestor Ibrahim (AS). Verse 144 vividly captures this, describing him turning his face towards the sky in anticipation of a command. The verses first predict the reaction of the “fools among the people” who will question this change. Then, the command comes: “Turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram.” This pivotal event, which reportedly happened in the middle of a congregational prayer, established a distinct and independent identity for the Muslim community, orienting them towards their own spiritual center.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. This is a direct legislative command responding to a specific historical situation.

“We have certainly seen the turning of your face, [O Muhammad], toward the heaven, and We will surely turn you to a qiblah with which you will be pleased. So turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram.” (Qur’an 2:144)

• Primary evidence: The explicit command to change the direction of prayer. This is corroborated by numerous, strong hadith in the collections of Bukhari and Muslim, which describe the exact circumstances of the change, even naming the mosque where it first occurred (Masjid al-Qiblatayn, “The Mosque of the Two Qiblahs”).
• Classical tafsir: All commentators agree on the historical context of these verses. Ibn Kathir narrates the hadith from al-Bara’ ibn ‘Azib detailing the 16-17 month period of praying towards Jerusalem and the Prophet’s (ﷺ) deep desire for the change.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the change of the Qiblah and establishing the unique identity of the Muslim Ummah.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Historical & Hadith Consensus.

🔄 Verses 2:145-152 — Affirmation, Recognition, and Remembrance

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Immediately following the change of Qiblah, 2 AH) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses deal with the immediate aftermath and implications of the change of Qiblah. The passage reassures the Prophet (ﷺ) that even if he were to bring every possible sign, the People of the Book would not follow his new Qiblah, as they are stubbornly attached to their own. It advises him not to be concerned with their desires. Verse 146 makes a stunning claim: that the People of the Book “recognize him (the Prophet) as they recognize their own sons,” but a faction among them knowingly conceals the truth. The verses then command the Prophet (ﷺ) and the community to be firm, stating that the truth is from their Lord. Each community has a direction, so the believers should focus on racing towards good deeds. The section concludes by repeating the command to face the Ka’bah and ties this new direction to the completion of God’s favor upon them, commanding them to remember Allah in return: “So remember Me; I will remember you.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The thematic continuation of the Qiblah issue, the repeated commands to face the Ka’bah, and the direct address to the concerns and dynamics with the People of the Book.
• Classical tafsir: Abdullah ibn Salam, a prominent Jewish rabbi who converted to Islam, is often cited as an example of one who recognized the Prophet (ﷺ) from the descriptions in the Torah. He reportedly said, “I recognized him more surely than I recognize my own son.” The tafsir explains that the completion of the favor refers to the establishment of an independent law (Shari’ah) and direction (Qiblah).

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Reinforcing the ruling of the new Qiblah and managing its social and theological implications.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Tafsir Consensus.

❤️ Verses 2:153-157 — The Test of Patience and the Reward of the Steadfast

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Post-Battle of Badr, c. 2-3 AH / March 624 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the establishment of the Ummah’s identity, the Qur’an prepares them for the inevitable trials to come. These verses are widely believed to have been revealed in the context of the first major military confrontation, the Battle of Badr, and the subsequent Battle of Uhud, where the Muslims faced casualties and loss. The passage calls upon the believers to seek help in patience (ṣabr) and prayer (ṣalāh). It then makes a profound theological statement about those killed in the way of Allah: “And do not say about those who are killed in the way of Allah, ‘They are dead.’ Rather, they are alive, but you perceive [it] not.” The verses then list the types of trials the community will face: fear, hunger, loss of wealth, lives, and fruits. The reward for enduring these trials with patience—by saying “Indeed we belong to Allah, and indeed to Him we will return”—is blessings, mercy, and guidance from their Lord.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, specifically in the context of battles and community hardship.

“And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruits, but give good tidings to the patient.” (Qur’an 2:155)

• Primary evidence: The themes of patience, testing, and martyrdom are directly relevant to the period of military conflict that began with the Battle of Badr in 2 AH. The language is one of consolation and preparation for hardship.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators universally link these verses to the trials of the believers, particularly jihad and its consequences. Ibn Kathir explains that “they are alive” means their souls are in a state of bliss in the presence of their Lord, receiving provision from Paradise, a state far superior to their worldly life.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community facing trials and conflict.
• Function in Narrative: Providing a theological framework for patience, suffering, and martyrdom.
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Historical Context.

⛰️ Verse 2:158 — The Ritual of Safa and Marwah: Sanctifying a Pre-Islamic Rite

Estimated placement in timeline: Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6 AH / 628 CE) or earlier — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse addresses a specific concern of the early Muslims, particularly the Ansar from Madinah. The ritual of walking between the two small hills of Safa and Marwah near the Ka’bah was part of the pre-Islamic pilgrimage rites. However, two idols (Isaf and Na’ila) had been placed on them, and the pre-Islamic Arabs would perform the ritual in their honor. After accepting Islam, some of the companions felt hesitant and embarrassed (taharrajū) to perform this rite, feeling it was a remnant of paganism. This verse was revealed to clarify the issue. It declares that Safa and Marwah are “among the symbols of Allah” (sha’ā’ir Allāh), legitimizing the ritual by linking it back to its pure, monotheistic origins (the story of Hajar, the wife of Ibrahim, searching for water for her son Isma’il). It reassures the believers that there is no sin in performing the walk (sa’i) as part of Hajj or Umrah.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, addressing a question about a pilgrimage ritual.

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of Safa and Marwah and the clarification that there is “no sin” in circumambulating them. This directly addresses a point of hesitation. The Hadith of Aisha (RA) in Sahih al-Bukhari provides the exact context, explaining the Ansar’s reluctance and how this verse reassured them.
• Classical tafsir: The Tafsir of Ibn Kathir provides the detailed narration from Aisha (RA), explaining the history of the idols and the Ansar’s concern. He clarifies that the verse established the rite as a legitimate, and in fact, obligatory part of Hajj and Umrah.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim companions (specifically the Ansar).
• Function in Narrative: Legislating and clarifying the status of the Sa’i ritual between Safa and Marwah.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

✉️ Verses 2:159-162 — The Curse on Those Who Conceal Knowledge

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses contain one of the most severe warnings in the Qur’an. They are directed at those who knowingly conceal the clear proofs and guidance sent down by God after it has been made clear to people in the Scripture. This is widely understood to refer primarily to some of the Jewish and Christian scholars who knew from their books about the coming of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) but deliberately hid this knowledge from their followers out of pride, jealousy, or fear of losing their status. The punishment is severe: they are “cursed by Allah and cursed by all who curse” (i.e., angels and believers). The only escape is through sincere repentance, correction, and making the truth public. Otherwise, the curse will be upon them eternally in the Hereafter.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, addressing the scholarly class of the People of the Book.

• Primary evidence: The theme of “concealing” (katama) what was revealed in the “Book” (al-Kitāb) is a direct reference to the ongoing polemics with the People of the Book in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like al-Tabari explicitly state that this verse was revealed about the Jewish scholars who concealed the description of Muhammad (ﷺ) and the verse of stoning for adultery, which were in the Torah. However, they also stress that the warning is general (‘āmm) and applies to anyone who hides knowledge that they are obligated to share.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The scholars of the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Issuing a severe warning against the sin of concealing divine knowledge.
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Tafsir Consensus.

☝️ Verses 2:163-164 — The One God and His Signs in Creation

Estimated placement in timeline: Early Madinan (c. 1-2 AH / 623-624 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the intense polemics and legislative rulings, the discourse returns to the most fundamental principle of all: the absolute oneness of God (Tawhid). Verse 163 is a concise and powerful declaration: “And your god is one God. There is no deity except Him, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.” This is followed by a magnificent verse (164) that points to the signs (āyāt) of this one Creator in the universe. It invites people to reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth, the alternation of night and day, the ships sailing the sea, the life-giving rain, the diversity of creatures, the direction of the winds, and the clouds. All of these, the verse concludes, are “signs for a people who use reason.”

Referenced Timeline: The Continuous Present. It describes the ongoing, observable phenomena of the natural world.

• Primary evidence: The foundational declaration of Tawhid and the detailed listing of cosmological signs are characteristic of verses aimed at establishing the core creed of Islam, suitable for the early Madinan period of community building.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir explains that after Allah affirmed His uniqueness, He provided the evidence for it by pointing to His magnificent creations. He elaborates on each of the signs mentioned, showing how they point to the existence, power, and mercy of the Creator.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A general address to all people.
• Function in Narrative: Reaffirming the core principle of Tawhid and providing rational, observable proofs for it from the natural world.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

💔 Verses 2:165-167 — The False Love of Idols and the Day of Mutual Disavowal

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3 AH, likely post-Uhud) — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Following the description of the signs of the One God, these verses describe the state of those who reject these signs and instead “take up rivals to Allah, loving them as they should love Allah.” This is the essence of shirk (polytheism): misdirecting the love, devotion, and reverence that belongs only to the Creator towards created beings. The passage contrasts this with the believers, whose “love for Allah is stronger.” It then paints a terrifying eschatological picture of the Day of Judgment, when the leaders of polytheism will disavow their followers, and the followers will see the punishment and wish for a second chance to disavow their leaders. All the ties between them will be severed, and their regret will be absolute.

Referenced Timeline: The Continuous Present (the state of polytheists) and Eschatological Time (the Day of Judgment).

• Primary evidence: The focus on “rivals” (andād) to Allah and the theme of leaders and followers is a direct engagement with the ideology and sociology of polytheism.
• Classical tafsir: Al-Tabari explains that the “love” for the rivals includes obedience to them in defiance of Allah’s commands. On the Day of Judgment, this relationship will be severed, and they will become enemies to one another, each blaming the other for their fate.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A general address, with a focus on polytheists.
• Function in Narrative: Condemning polytheism as a form of disordered love and describing its ultimate failure in the Hereafter.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

🍽️ Verses 2:168-173 — Lawful Food and the Folly of Ancestral Tradition

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section introduces the first set of dietary laws in the Surah. It begins with a general address to mankind: “O mankind, eat from whatever is on earth [that is] lawful and good (ḥalālan ṭayyiban).” It warns against following the “footsteps of Satan,” who commands evil and indecency. The passage then pivots to critique a core justification for polytheistic practices: blind imitation of ancestors. When told to follow what Allah has revealed, they say, “Rather, we will follow that upon which we found our fathers.” The Qur’an dismisses this with a scathing rhetorical question: “Even if their fathers understood nothing, nor were they guided?” The section then specifies for the believers what is forbidden (ḥarām): carrion, blood, pork, and that which is dedicated to other than Allah. However, it provides a crucial concession for cases of necessity.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating dietary laws and critiquing polytheistic taboos.

• Primary evidence: The combination of a general principle (“eat what is lawful and good”), a critique of ancestral tradition, and a specific list of prohibitions is characteristic of a legislative passage from the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that “the footsteps of Satan” refers to the pagan practice of declaring certain livestock forbidden based on superstition, which was a form of legislating alongside Allah. The concession for necessity (“without willful disobedience nor transgressing due limits”) establishes the important Islamic legal principle that “necessity makes the unlawful lawful.”

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community and a critique of polytheistic Arabs.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the basic principles of Islamic dietary law and refuting the authority of blind ancestral tradition.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Legislative.

🔥 Verses 2:174-176 — Eating Fire: The Price of Concealing Truth for Worldly Gain

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage returns to the theme of concealing divine knowledge, but with a powerful and visceral metaphor. It refers to those who hide what Allah has revealed in the Scripture and “exchange it for a small price.” This is again a reference to the corrupt scholars among the People of the Book who, for the sake of maintaining their leadership, stipends, and status, would conceal prophecies about the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) or alter divine laws. The Qur’an states that “they are not eating anything into their bellies except Fire.” The worldly gains they consume are, in reality, the fuel of their own damnation. The verse adds that on the Day of Judgment, Allah will not speak to them or purify them, a sign of ultimate abandonment.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with eschatological consequences.

• Primary evidence: The themes of concealing the “Book” and exchanging it for a “small price” are direct continuations of the polemic against certain scholars of the People of the Book, as seen in earlier verses like 2:159.
• Classical tafsir: As-Suddi, quoted by Ibn Kathir, links this verse to the Jewish rabbis who would receive gifts and bribes from their people and, in return, would alter the law or conceal the truth to please them. He explains that the “small price” is the entirety of this world’s gains, which are insignificant compared to the Hereafter they have lost.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: Corrupt scholars among the People of the Book.
• Function in Narrative: Condemning those who trade divine knowledge for worldly gain with a powerful metaphor.
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Tafsir Consensus.

💖 Verse 2:177 — The Definition of True Righteousness: A Comprehensive Creed

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This single, powerful verse, known as the “Verse of Righteousness” (Āyat al-Birr), is a comprehensive definition of the Islamic worldview. It is said to have been revealed after the change of the Qiblah, when there was much discussion and argument about the direction of prayer. This verse came to shift the focus from the external rituals to the internal and social realities of faith. It declares that true righteousness (al-birr) is not merely the ritual act of turning one’s face to the east or the west. Rather, it is a complete system encompassing: 1) Correct Belief (Iman): Believing in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, and the Prophets. 2) Social & Financial Responsibility: Giving wealth, despite one’s love for it, to relatives, orphans, the needy, the traveler, and for freeing captives. 3) Ritual Worship: Establishing prayer (Salat) and giving charity (Zakat). 4) Moral & Ethical Integrity: Fulfilling promises and being patient in times of hardship, illness, and conflict.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A defining statement of the core principles of the faith.

• Primary evidence: The verse’s opening (“Righteousness is not in turning your faces…”) is a clear response to an over-emphasis on the ritual of the Qiblah, which was the major topic of discussion in Madinah in 2 AH.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators praise this verse as one of the most comprehensive in the Qur’an. Ibn Kathir states that whoever embodies the qualities mentioned in this verse has “embraced all the good aspects of Islam.” It is seen as a complete summary of the faith.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing a comprehensive, holistic definition of righteousness (al-birr).
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Tafsir Consensus.

⚖️ Verses 2:178-179 — The Law of Retribution (Qisas): Justice Tempered with Mercy

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section introduces a key piece of Islamic criminal law: the law of equitable retribution (Qisāṣ) for murder. In pre-Islamic Arabia, revenge was a matter of tribal honor. If a member of a weaker tribe killed someone from a stronger tribe, the stronger tribe might demand the death of several of the killer’s tribesmen, or a person of higher status, leading to endless blood feuds. Islam came to reform this system. This verse prescribes a just and equal retribution: “the free for the free, the slave for the slave, and the female for the female.” More importantly, it introduces a crucial element of mercy: if the victim’s heir (walī) chooses to forgive the killer, they can accept monetary compensation (diyah) instead. The passage concludes by stating that in this law of Qisas, there is “life for you, O people of understanding,” because the certainty of just punishment deters murder and prevents the cycles of vengeful bloodshed.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating a major aspect of criminal law.

• Primary evidence: The establishment of a specific legal ruling for a major crime is a clear function of the Madinan period, where the Prophet (ﷺ) was not just a preacher but also a statesman and judge.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that this verse abrogated the unjust pre-Islamic customs and the differing laws of the Torah (which made retribution mandatory) and the Gospel (which emphasized forgiveness). Islam, they note, took the middle path, prescribing just retribution but strongly encouraging and allowing for forgiveness and compensation.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the law of equitable retribution (Qisas) for murder.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Historical Context.

📜 Verses 2:180-182 — The Law of Bequests: Fairness in Inheritance

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3 AH / 625 CE) — Confidence: High (90%, as an early ruling).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage deals with the law of bequests (waṣiyyah). It prescribes that when death approaches a believer who is leaving behind wealth, they should make a bequest in a just and reasonable manner for their parents and near relatives. This was an early step in regulating inheritance, which in pre-Islamic times was often arbitrary and excluded women and children. The verse frames this as a “duty upon the righteous.” The following verses add a stern warning against those who would alter a person’s will after hearing it, placing the sin squarely on them. However, it provides an exception for a mediator who fears that the person making the will is being unfair or unjust; in such a case, mediating a fair settlement between the parties is not a sin.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating an early aspect of inheritance law.

• Primary evidence: The legislative nature of the verse, dealing with a core social and economic issue like inheritance, places it in Madinah. The fact that it provides a general rule, which was later detailed in another Surah, suggests it is an earlier ruling on the matter.
• Classical tafsir: There is a major discussion in the books of Tafsir and Fiqh about the relationship between this verse and the later inheritance verses in Surah An-Nisa. The consensus view, based on hadith like “There is no bequest for an heir,” is that the specific obligation to make a bequest for parents and relatives who are already legal heirs was superseded by the fixed shares, but the general principle of making a just will remains.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the initial legislation concerning bequests and wills.
• Evidence Level: Legislative, with a known context of abrogation.

🌙 Verses 2:183-185 — The Prescription of Fasting: A Pillar of Faith is Established

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Sha’ban, 2 AH / February 624 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the foundational passage that legislates the obligatory fast of the month of Ramadan, the fourth pillar of Islam. The revelation is believed to have occurred in the month of Sha’ban, shortly before the first Ramadan to be fasted by the community. The verses begin by linking this new prescription to the practices of previous nations (“as it was prescribed for those before you”), which frames it as a continuation of a long tradition of spiritual discipline. The purpose of the fast is clearly stated: “so that you may become righteous.” The passage then lays out the specific rulings: the fast is for a fixed number of days in the month of Ramadan, which is sanctified as the month in which the Qur’an was first revealed. Concessions are given for those who are ill or traveling—they can make up the days later. The verse ends with the beautiful principle: “Allah intends for you ease and does not intend for you hardship.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Establishing a major, pillar-defining ritual.

“O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you that you may achieve righteousness.” (Qur’an 2:183)

• Primary evidence: The explicit command to fast during the month of Ramadan. Historical records confirm that the first obligatory Ramadan fast took place in 2 AH, just a month before the Battle of Badr, making this a very precisely dated revelation.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the early Muslims had practiced some voluntary fasts, like the day of Ashura, but this revelation made the full month of Ramadan a mandatory pillar of the faith. They elaborate on the specific rulings and the immense spiritual benefits and rewards associated with the month.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the obligatory fast of Ramadan.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Historical & Legislative Consensus.

🙏 Verse 2:186 — The Nearness of God: An Invitation to Supplicate

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This beautiful verse about the nearness of Allah and the power of supplication (du’ā’) is placed right in the middle of the verses on fasting. According to some reports, a companion asked the Prophet (ﷺ), “O Messenger of Allah, is our Lord near, so we may whisper to Him, or is He far, so we should call out to Him?” This verse was the answer. It is a profound statement of God’s immediate and personal relationship with His servants. Unlike the other verses around it, it is not a command from the Prophet to “Say…” Instead, Allah speaks directly in the first person: “And when My servants ask you concerning Me, indeed I am near. I respond to the invocation of the supplicant when he calls upon Me.” The verse then links this divine nearness to human responsibility: “So let them respond to Me and believe in Me that they may be guided.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct answer to a question about the nature of God’s presence.

• Primary evidence: The unique first-person address and its specific placement between verses on fasting, a time when du’ā’ is especially encouraged. The Asbab al-Nuzul, while not from the strongest chains, fits the context perfectly.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir highlights the significance of this verse being placed here, stating that it encourages supplicants to make du’ā’ at the end of the fast and throughout the month of Ramadan. He emphasizes that Allah’s response is guaranteed, though it may take different forms: He may give what was asked for, ward off a harm, or save the reward for the Hereafter.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Affirming the nearness of Allah and encouraging direct supplication (du’a).
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports & Thematic Placement.

💑 Verse 2:187 — Clarifying the Rules of Fasting: Mercy and Concession

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse was revealed to clarify and ease the rules of fasting. Initially, the rule was much stricter: after breaking the fast at sunset, if a person fell asleep, they were not allowed to eat, drink, or have marital relations again until the next sunset. This proved to be extremely difficult. Some companions, including Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA), fell into error out of human weakness. This verse was revealed as a mercy and a concession. It explicitly made it lawful to have marital relations with one’s spouse during the nights of Ramadan (“He knew that you used to deceive yourselves, so He turned to you and pardoned you.”). It then defines the period of the fast with a beautiful metaphor: “eat and drink until the white thread of dawn becomes distinct to you from the black thread.” The verse also establishes the spiritual practice of I’tikāf (seclusion in the mosque), during which marital relations are forbidden.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A legislative amendment to the rules of fasting.

• Primary evidence: The explicit reference to changing a previous, stricter rule about the nights of Ramadan. This is confirmed by numerous hadith, including a detailed account from al-Bara’ ibn ‘Azib in Sahih al-Bukhari, which describes the original hardship and the relief that came with this verse.
• Classical tafsir: All commentators narrate the story of the companions’ difficulty with the original rule of fasting. They explain that this verse abrogated the earlier practice and established the permanent, more lenient rule that is followed to this day.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Amending and clarifying the rules for the fast of Ramadan, making them easier.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Universally-Agreed Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

💰 Verse 2:188 — Unjust Acquisition and Bribery: A Warning on Economic Ethics

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: Medium (75%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Placed after the detailed rulings on the personal piety of fasting, this verse shifts to public morality and economic ethics. It issues a strong prohibition against consuming wealth unjustly and using bribery to influence judges. The verse forbids “consuming one another’s wealth unjustly” (e.g., through theft, fraud, or usury) and specifically condemns the act of “adducing it to the rulers in order that you may consume a portion of the wealth of the people sinfully, while you know.” This refers to the practice of bribing a judge or person in authority to obtain a ruling that would unlawfully grant one the property of another.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Establishing principles of economic and judicial integrity.

• Primary evidence: The legislative nature of the verse, dealing with economic and legal matters, is a hallmark of the Madinan period. Its placement after the verses on Ramadan suggests a thematic link between spiritual discipline and worldly conduct.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir explain that this verse covers all forms of unlawful acquisition. They cite hadith where the Prophet (ﷺ) warns that even if he, as a human judge, were to mistakenly rule in someone’s favor based on their eloquent argument, they would in reality only be taking a piece of the Hellfire if the property was not rightfully theirs.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Prohibiting unlawful acquisition of wealth and the use of bribery.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Thematic.

❓ Verse 2:189 — The New Moons and Righteous Entry: The Purpose of the Lunar Calendar

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse was revealed in response to two separate questions from the companions. First, they asked the Prophet (ﷺ), “Why does the moon wane and wax?” They were asking about the wisdom behind the phases of the moon. The Qur’an answers that the new moons (ahillah) are “measurements of time for the people and for Hajj.” They serve as a natural, universal calendar for marking months, seasons, and the timing of religious obligations like fasting and pilgrimage. The second part of the verse addresses a superstitious pre-Islamic custom of the Ansar. When they returned from a journey, especially from Hajj, they considered it a pious act to not enter their houses through the front door, but to climb over the back wall. The Qur’an dismisses this practice, stating, “Righteousness is not in entering houses from their backs, but righteousness is in one who fears Allah. And enter houses from their doors.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Answering questions and correcting a superstitious practice.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of the new moons (ahillah) and the strange custom of entering houses from the back. This is confirmed by a clear hadith from al-Bara’ in Sahih al-Bukhari, which provides the exact context for the second part of the verse.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators all provide the same reasons for revelation, linking the two distinct parts of the verse to the two questions asked by the companions. They explain that the verse establishes the lunar calendar’s divine purpose and abrogates a baseless pre-Islamic ritual.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim companions (specifically the Ansar).
• Function in Narrative: Explaining the purpose of the lunar calendar and correcting a pre-Islamic superstition.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

⚔️ Verses 2:190-195 — The Ethics of War: Rules of Engagement are Established

Estimated placement in timeline: Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6 AH / 628 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is a foundational passage on the Islamic ethics of warfare. It is widely believed to have been revealed in the context of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. The treaty stipulated that the Muslims could return the following year to perform the lesser pilgrimage (Umrah). These verses were revealed in anticipation of that return, giving them the permission and the rules for fighting if the Quraysh broke the treaty and attacked them. The passage commands the Muslims to “fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress.” This establishes the defensive nature of the conflict and forbids aggression. It lays down clear rules: fighting is to protect the freedom of religion from persecution (fitnah), which is described as “worse than killing.” Fighting is permitted even in the sacred precincts of Makkah if the Muslims are attacked there first. However, the verses repeatedly stress that if the enemy ceases hostilities, the Muslims must also stop, “for Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.” The section concludes with a command to spend in the way of Allah and a warning not to “throw yourselves with your own hands into destruction,” which is interpreted as both being miserly in funding the community’s defense and being reckless in battle.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, legislating rules for anticipated conflict.

• Primary evidence: The specific mention of fighting near the “Sacred Mosque” (al-Masjid al-Haram) and the context of being expelled from one’s home strongly points to the conflict with the Quraysh of Makkah. The conditional nature of the fighting fits the tense situation after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir and others link this passage to the events of Hudaybiyyah. They explain that “do not transgress” means do not kill non-combatants (women, children, the elderly), do not mutilate bodies, and do not initiate hostilities. The “destruction” in verse 195 is explained as abandoning both jihad and the financial support for it, which would lead to the community’s ruin.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the ethical rules and legal basis for warfare in Islam.
• Evidence Level: Strong Historical & Thematic Context.

🕋 Verses 2:196-203 — The Rites of Hajj and Umrah: A Detailed Guide

Estimated placement in timeline: Post-Hudaybiyyah (c. 6 AH / 628 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This extensive passage provides detailed rulings for the Hajj (major pilgrimage) and Umrah (lesser pilgrimage). It was revealed around the time of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, when the desire and practical possibility of performing the pilgrimage became a central concern for the community. The verses cover various scenarios: what to do if one is prevented from completing the pilgrimage (as the Muslims were at Hudaybiyyah), the rules of the state of ritual consecration (ihram), the prohibition of arguing, sinning, and sexual relations during Hajj, the importance of taking provisions for the journey (while emphasizing that the best provision is piety), and the permissibility of engaging in trade during the pilgrimage season. It also sanctifies the key rituals of Hajj, such as the standing at Arafat, the movement to Muzdalifah, and the remembrances at Mina over several days.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating the details of a pillar of Islam.

• Primary evidence: The detailed and specific rulings related to Hajj and Umrah, including what to do when “prevented” (uḥṣirtum), which directly relates to the situation at Hudaybiyyah.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators provide extensive explanations for each of the rulings in this section, often cross-referencing them with the actions of the Prophet (ﷺ) during his own pilgrimages, especially the Farewell Hajj. They explain how these verses purified the Hajj from its pre-Islamic innovations.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing detailed legislation for the performance of Hajj and Umrah.
• Evidence Level: Strong Historical & Legislative Context.

🎭 Verses 2:204-207 — Two Archetypes: The Eloquent Hypocrite and the Sincere Believer

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: Medium (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses paint a portrait of two contrasting character types found in the Madinan community. The first is the eloquent hypocrite. He is described as someone whose speech about worldly life is pleasing, and he calls Allah to witness what is in his heart, yet he is “the most contentious of adversaries.” When he turns away, he strives to cause corruption and destroy property and life. The second archetype is the sincere believer who “sells himself, seeking the approval of Allah.” He dedicates his entire life to God’s cause. Some reports link the first description to a specific hypocrite, al-Akhnas ibn Shariq, who spoke sweetly to the Prophet (ﷺ) but then acted destructively. The second description is linked to sincere companions like Suhayb al-Rumi, who gave up all his wealth to migrate to Madinah.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Describing social archetypes within the community.

• Primary evidence: The detailed description of the hypocrite’s behavior is a recurring theme in Madinan surahs. The contrast between this and the self-sacrificing believer reflects the social reality of the community.
• Classical tafsir: Many commentators, including al-Tabari, narrate the story of al-Akhnas ibn Shariq as the specific reason for the revelation of verse 204. They likewise link verse 207 to Suhayb al-Rumi’s famous act of “selling” his wealth to the Quraysh in exchange for his freedom to make Hijrah.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, hypocrites.
• Function in Narrative: Contrasting the character of the destructive hypocrite with the self-sacrificing believer.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🕊️ Verses 2:208-210 — A Call to Enter Wholly into Peace and a Warning Against Division

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section is a call to the believers to “enter into Islam completely” (udkhulū fīs-silmi kāffah). Some commentators suggest this was addressed to some of the People of the Book who had converted to Islam but still wanted to hold on to some of their former practices, like observing the Sabbath or certain dietary laws from the Torah. The verse commands them to embrace Islam in its entirety and not to follow the “footsteps of Satan,” who is their clear enemy. It then issues a stern warning: if they “slip back” after clear proofs have come to them, they should know that Allah is Almighty and Wise. The final verse asks a chilling rhetorical question: “Do they await but that Allah should come to them in covers of clouds and the angels [as well] and the matter is [then] decided?” This warns that waiting for such a dramatic, undeniable manifestation of God is futile; the time for choice will be over then.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with an eschatological warning.

• Primary evidence: The command to enter Islam “completely” and the warning against backsliding after receiving “clear proofs” (al-bayyināt) strongly suggests a context of new converts and the consolidation of the community’s identity.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas is reported to have said this verse was revealed concerning converts from Judaism, like Abdullah ibn Salam and his companions, who wanted to continue venerating the Sabbath. This verse instructed them to fully embrace the rites and laws of Islam.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, particularly new converts.
• Function in Narrative: Calling for complete and unified submission to Islam and warning against division or backsliding.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports (Asbab al-Nuzul).

📖 Verses 2:211-214 — Lessons from the Past, Trials of the Present

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Post-Uhud, c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage is a powerful source of consolation and motivation for the Muslim community, likely revealed during a period of intense hardship, such as after the military setback at the Battle of Uhud. It begins by asking the Prophet (ﷺ) to “Ask the Children of Israel how many a clear sign We gave them,” reminding the audience that receiving signs is no guarantee of guidance if people choose to alter God’s favor. The verses then describe the mindset of the disbelievers who mock the poor and struggling believers, not realizing that the pious will be above them on the Day of Judgment. The climax of the passage is verse 214, which asks the believers a direct and penetrating question: “Or do you think that you will enter Paradise while such [trial] has not yet come to you as came to those who passed on before you?” It reminds them that past communities of believers were afflicted with such severe poverty, illness, and persecution that even their Messenger would cry out, “When is the help of Allah?” The verse ends with the ultimate reassurance: “Unquestionably, the help of Allah is near.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with direct parallels to the trials of all past believing nations.

• Primary evidence: The intense themes of trial, hardship, being “shaken,” and the mockery of disbelievers are all perfectly suited to the psychological atmosphere in Madinah after the Battle of Uhud.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators universally link this verse to the severe trials faced by the companions. Khabbab ibn al-Aratt reports in Sahih al-Bukhari that the companions complained to the Prophet (ﷺ) about their severe persecution (in Makkah), and he recited a similar message, reminding them of the extreme tortures endured by believers of the past. This verse carries the same theme into the Madinan context.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Consoling and strengthening the believers in a time of great trial by reminding them of the historical pattern of struggle and the certainty of divine help.
• Evidence Level: Strong Historical & Thematic Context.

💸 Verse 2:215 — The Rightful Recipients of Charity

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse was revealed in response to a practical question from the companions: “They ask you, [O Muhammad], what they should spend [in charity].” They wanted to know the best way to spend their wealth for the sake of Allah. The verse provides a clear and prioritized list of recipients: “Say, ‘Whatever you spend of good is [to be] for parents and relatives and orphans and the needy and the traveler.'” The verse concludes by affirming that “whatever you do of good – indeed, Allah is Knowing of it.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A legislative response to a question.

• Primary evidence: The verse begins with the formula “They ask you…” (yas’alūnaka), which is a clear sign that it is a direct response to a question posed by the companions.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir notes that this verse explains the recipients of voluntary charity (sadaqah), as opposed to the obligatory Zakat, whose recipients are detailed in Surah At-Tawbah (9:60). The emphasis here is on strengthening the family and caring for those who are socially and economically vulnerable.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Clarifying the priorities for spending in charity.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

⚔️ Verses 2:216-218 — The Reluctance for War and the Greater Crime of Persecution

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Rajab, 2 AH / January 624 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage was revealed in response to a specific and controversial incident: the expedition of Nakhlah. The Prophet (ﷺ) sent a small group of companions to monitor a Qurayshi caravan. The encounter turned violent, and the Muslims killed one of the caravan leaders and took two captives. The problem was that this occurred during the sacred month of Rajab, when fighting was forbidden by long-standing Arab tradition. The Quraysh seized on this, launching a propaganda campaign accusing the Muslims of violating the sacred month. The Muslim community itself was distressed and uncertain. These verses were revealed to address the crisis. Verse 216 acknowledges that fighting is “prescribed for you though you dislike it,” framing it as a difficult but necessary duty. Verse 217 directly addresses the controversy: “They ask you about fighting in the sacred month. Say, ‘Fighting therein is a great [sin].'” However, it immediately puts this sin in perspective by listing the far greater sins of the Quraysh: “but to avert [people] from the way of Allah and to disbelieve in Him and [to prevent access to] al-Masjid al-Haram and the expulsion of its people therefrom, are greater [sins] in the sight of Allah. And fitnah (persecution) is greater than killing.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. A direct response to a specific military/political incident.

• Primary evidence: The explicit mention of being asked about “fighting in the sacred month” (al-shahri l-ḥarām). This is a direct link to the Nakhlah incident, which is detailed in all major Sira and Tafsir works as the context for this revelation.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Ishaq’s Sira provides the most detailed account of the expedition of Nakhlah and the subsequent controversy. The Tafsirs of al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir confirm that these verses were revealed to resolve the issue, providing a divine verdict on the matter.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community, the Quraysh.
• Function in Narrative: Addressing the controversy of the Nakhlah expedition and establishing the principle that persecution is a greater sin than fighting to stop it.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Universally-Agreed Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🍷 Verses 2:219-220 — On Wine and Gambling, and the Care of Orphans

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage answers two distinct questions. The first part addresses wine (khamr) and gambling (maysir). These were deeply ingrained social practices in pre-Islamic Arabia. The companions asked the Prophet (ﷺ) for a ruling on them. This verse represents the second stage in the gradual prohibition of alcohol in Islam. It takes a balanced approach, acknowledging that “in them is great sin and [yet, some] benefit for man, but their sin is greater than their benefit.” It doesn’t prohibit them outright but provides a clear moral condemnation, preparing the community for the final prohibition later. The second part of the verse answers a question about orphans. After verses were revealed that warned sternly against consuming the property of orphans, some guardians became overly cautious, completely separating their own food and finances from the orphans’ out of fear of sinning. This was causing practical hardship. The verse clarifies: “Say, ‘Improvement for them is best.’ And if you mix your affairs with theirs – they are your brothers.” It allows for mixing finances for the orphan’s benefit, as long as the intention is sincere improvement, not exploitation.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Addressing social and ethical questions.

• Primary evidence: The verse begins with the formula “They ask you…” (yas’alūnaka) for both topics, indicating it is a direct response to questions from the community. The content deals with social legislation typical of the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain the three stages of alcohol prohibition: 1) 4:43 (don’t pray while drunk), 2) this verse (2:219, sin is greater than benefit), and 3) 5:90 (the final, absolute prohibition). They also provide the context for the question about orphans, explaining the companions’ scrupulous fear and how this verse brought them ease.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing rulings on alcohol, gambling, and the proper care of orphans.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

💍 Verse 2:221 — Regulations on Inter-faith Marriage

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): As the Muslim community in Madinah grew and interacted with the surrounding polytheist (mushrik) tribes, the question of marriage arose. This verse lays down a clear and firm ruling on marriage with polytheists. It forbids Muslim men from marrying polytheistic women “until they believe,” and forbids Muslim women from marrying polytheistic men “until they believe.” The verse provides a powerful justification based on spiritual values over social status: “A believing slave woman is better than a polytheist, even though she might please you. And a believing slave is better than a polytheist, even though he might please you.” The ultimate reason is given: the polytheists “invite to the Fire, but Allah invites to Paradise.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating family law.

• Primary evidence: The specific and direct prohibition of marriage with “mushrikin” and “mushrikat” is a clear legislative act, characteristic of the Madinan period of community formation.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators link this verse to specific incidents where Muslims were considering marrying polytheists, either for love or for tribal alliances. This verse put a definitive stop to the practice. They also discuss its relationship with 5:5, explaining that the People of the Book are a separate category from the polytheists being discussed here.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the rules for marriage with non-Muslims.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Historical Context.

🩸 Verses 2:222-223 — Marital Intimacy, Purity, and the Metaphor of the Tillage

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This passage addresses questions about marital intimacy, specifically concerning menstruation and the nature of sexual relations. The companions asked the Prophet (ﷺ) about what was permissible during a wife’s menses. In some traditions (like that of the Jews), a menstruating woman was considered impure and was to be completely isolated. In others (like the pre-Islamic Arabs), there were few or no restrictions. This verse provides the balanced Islamic ruling: “It is a harm, so keep away from women during menstruation. And do not approach them until they are pure.” This was interpreted as prohibiting intercourse, but allowing for other forms of intimacy and companionship. The second part of the passage (v. 223) addresses the manner of intercourse. Using a powerful metaphor, it states, “Your wives are a tilth for you, so go to your tilth when or how you will.” This affirmed that any sexual position is permissible as long as it is within the context of vaginal intercourse, which is the “tilth” (place of cultivation) for procreation. It also advises to “send forth [good] for yourselves” beforehand, interpreted as invoking Allah’s name.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Addressing specific questions on family law and intimacy.

• Primary evidence: The verse begins with the formula “They ask you…” (yas’alūnaka), indicating it is a response to a direct question. The topics of menstruation and marital intimacy are core aspects of family law (fiqh) that were being established in Madinah.
• Classical tafsir: Numerous hadith, especially from Jabir and Ibn Abbas in the collections of Muslim and Bukhari, provide the context for the “tilth” verse, explaining that it was revealed to counter the superstitious beliefs about sexual positions. The ruling on menstruation is likewise explained in detail.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating rules concerning marital intimacy and ritual purity.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

🤚 Verses 2:224-225 — The Misuse of Oaths: A Call for Sincerity

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses address the misuse of oaths. It was a practice among some Arabs to use an oath in the name of Allah as an excuse to avoid doing a good deed. For example, if asked to help a relative or make peace between people, a person might say, “I have sworn by Allah that I will not do that,” using a pious-sounding oath to justify their refusal to do good. This verse forbids this practice: “And do not make [your oath by] Allah an excuse against being righteous and fearing Allah and making peace among people.” The following verse clarifies the distinction between different types of oaths. It states that Allah will not hold people accountable for “unintentional” or thoughtless oaths (laghw), such as casually saying “By Allah, yes” or “No, by Allah” in everyday speech. However, He will call them to account for what their “hearts have earned”—the deliberate, intentional oaths that they swear.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Establishing ethical guidelines for oaths.

• Primary evidence: The legislative nature of the verses, providing specific rulings on the use and accountability of oaths, is characteristic of the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Kathir cites the example of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), who swore an oath not to help a relative (Mistah) after he was involved in the slander against Aisha (RA). After a verse in Surah An-Nur was revealed encouraging forgiveness, Abu Bakr broke his oath, paid the expiation, and resumed helping his relative, perfectly embodying the principle in this verse.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the proper and ethical use of oaths.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Tafsir Reports.

⚖️ Verses 2:226-227 — The Four-Month Ultimatum: Reforming the Oath of Marital Abstinence (Īlā’)

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses address and reform a harmful pre-Islamic practice known as *Īlā’*. This was an oath taken by a husband to abstain from sexual relations with his wife. In the pre-Islamic era, a man could take this oath and then leave his wife in a state of limbo indefinitely—she was not divorced and free to remarry, nor was she being treated as a wife. It was a way to punish and harm a woman. Islam intervened to bring justice to this situation. This verse sets a firm, four-month time limit. A man who takes such an oath has four months to decide. If he reconciles with his wife within that period (“for indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful”), the marriage continues (though he may need to expiate his oath). But if the four months pass and he has not reconciled, an irrevocable divorce is automatically enacted. The woman is then free.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating family law to reform a pre-Islamic custom.

• Primary evidence: The specific legal ruling, setting a four-month limit for a particular type of oath, is a clear legislative act from the Madinan period. The topic itself—reforming a harmful pre-Islamic marital custom—is a hallmark of this era.
• Classical tafsir: The books of Fiqh and Tafsir, such as that of al-Qurtubi, extensively discuss the legal rulings derived from this verse, establishing it as the basis for the laws of *Īlā’*. They confirm that its primary purpose was to end the harm (ḍarar) inflicted upon women through this practice.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community (husbands and wives).
• Function in Narrative: Legislating a time limit for the oath of abstinence, thereby protecting women’s rights.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Historical Context.

⏳ Verse 2:228 — The Waiting Period (‘Iddah) and the Balance of Marital Rights

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse is a cornerstone of Islamic family law, establishing the rules for the waiting period (‘iddah) after a divorce. It states that divorced women shall wait for three menstrual cycles. This waiting period serves two primary purposes: to ascertain if the woman is pregnant, thereby clarifying the child’s lineage, and to provide a cooling-off period during which reconciliation is possible. The verse grants the husband the right to take his wife back during this period if he sincerely desires reconciliation. Crucially, the verse then lays down a foundational principle of marital equity: “And they (women) have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is reasonable.” This was a revolutionary statement. The verse concludes with the statement, “but the men have a degree over them,” which has been a subject of extensive commentary.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating divorce procedures.

• Primary evidence: The specific legal ruling on the ‘iddah period and the statement of principle on marital rights are clear indicators of Madinan legislation aimed at structuring the new society.
• Classical tafsir: Ibn Abbas, as quoted by al-Tabari, beautifully explained the verse on rights: “I like to adorn myself for my wife just as I like for her to adorn herself for me,” because of this verse. Regarding the “degree,” commentators like al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir link it directly to the man’s obligations of Mahr (dower) and Nafaqah (financial maintenance), as specified in other verses (e.g., 4:34).

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the divorce waiting period (‘iddah) and establishing the principle of mutual rights in marriage.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Overwhelming Scholarly Consensus.

💔 Verses 2:229-232 — The Three Divorces and the Sanctity of the Dower

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This block of verses introduces another revolutionary reform to the institution of divorce. In pre-Islamic times, a man could divorce his wife and take her back as many times as he wished, often using this as a means of tormenting her. This verse puts a definitive stop to this practice by stating, “Divorce is twice.” This means a man can issue a revocable divorce two times. After each of these, he can either “retain her in an acceptable manner or release her with good treatment.” However, if he divorces her a third time, she is no longer lawful for him until she has married another man and that subsequent marriage has also ended legitimately. This “three-strike” rule made divorce a serious, final matter. The verses also strictly forbid the husband from taking back any of the dower (mahr) he gave to his wife upon divorce, unless the divorce is initiated by the wife (*khul’*) who may then return some or all of the dower to gain her freedom. Finally, the passage warns the family of a divorced woman not to prevent her from remarrying her former husband if they both agree to reconcile after a first or second divorce.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Further legislation on divorce procedures.

• Primary evidence: The specific and detailed legal rulings on the number of divorces, the dower, and *khul’*. This is clear Madinan legislation. The Asbab al-Nuzul for the prohibition on preventing remarriage is famously linked to the case of Ma’qil ibn Yasar’s sister.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir narrate the story of a woman who complained to Aisha (RA) about her husband’s practice of repeatedly divorcing and taking her back to harm her, leading to the revelation of the “divorce is twice” rule. The story of Ma’qil ibn Yasar refusing to let his sister remarry her ex-husband, and the Prophet (ﷺ) reciting verse 232 to him, is recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the finality of the third divorce, protecting the wife’s dower, and establishing rules for reconciliation.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Specific Historical Events.

🤱 Verse 2:233 — The Rights of Nursing Mothers and Infants

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse is a detailed charter of rights for nursing mothers and their infants, especially in the context of divorce. It establishes the standard period of breastfeeding as two full years for those who wish to complete it. It places the financial responsibility for the mother’s food and clothing during this period squarely on the father (“upon the father is the mothers’ provision and their clothing according to what is acceptable”). The verse emphasizes that no soul is burdened beyond its capacity, meaning neither the mother nor the father should be harmed or put under undue pressure because of the child. It also allows for weaning by mutual consent before two years and regulates the practice of hiring a wet nurse, ensuring the father pays her fairly. This verse ensures that even after a marriage ends, the needs of the child and its nursing mother are protected by law.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating family law concerning child welfare.

• Primary evidence: The specific and detailed legal rulings on the duration of nursing and the financial obligations of the father are clear evidence of Madinan social legislation.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that this verse establishes the child’s right to be nursed and the mother’s right to be compensated for it. The Fiqh (jurisprudence) of custody, nursing, and post-divorce maintenance is largely derived from this comprehensive verse.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community (divorced parents).
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the rights and responsibilities related to breastfeeding and infant care after divorce.
• Evidence Level: Legislative.

widowed woman should not be forced into marriage but has the right to decide for herself in a fair manner. The passage ends with a reminder that Allah is aware of what is in people’s hearts and that proposals should be made honorably, not in secret promises. This legislation gave widowed women dignity, agency, and a protected period for grieving and transition.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating family law for widows.

• Primary evidence: The specific legal rulings on the ‘iddah for widows, the provision for them, and the rules of engagement for marriage proposals are clear Madinan social legislation.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that the initial ‘iddah for a widow was one full year (as mentioned in 2:240). They view verse 2:234 (four months and ten days) as having abrogated the one-year duration, establishing the shorter period as the final legal ruling. The provision mentioned in 2:240 is then considered a strong recommendation rather than an obligation.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the rights, waiting period, and rules of remarriage for widows.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Historical Context.

💍 Verses 2:236-237 — Divorce Before Consummation: The Rules of the Gift

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section addresses the specific and sensitive situation of a divorce that occurs after the marriage contract has been made but before the marriage has been consummated. The verses lay out two scenarios. First (v. 236), if no dower (mahr) was specified in the contract, the husband is obligated to give the woman a “provision” or gift (mut’ah), the amount of which should be according to his financial means (“upon the wealthy according to his ability and upon the poor according to his ability”). This is described as a “duty upon the doers of good.” Second (v. 237), if a dower was specified, the husband is obligated to pay half of the specified amount. The verse then encourages magnanimity and forgiveness, suggesting that either the woman can forgo her right to the half-dower, or the man can choose to pay the full amount. “And to forgo is nearer to righteousness,” the verse advises, encouraging both parties to be gracious even at the painful end of a relationship.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating a specific case in family law.

• Primary evidence: The highly specific legal content, dealing with a nuanced aspect of divorce law, is a clear sign of Madinan-era legislation.
• Classical tafsir: The books of Fiqh dedicate entire sections to the rulings derived from these verses. Commentators explain that the “provision” (mut’ah) in the first case is a gift to console the woman and is obligatory according to most schools of thought. The encouragement to “forgo” is praised as a higher ethical standard.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Legislating the financial settlements for divorce before consummation.
• Evidence Level: Legislative.

🙏 Verses 2:238-239 — Guarding the Prayers, Especially the Middle Prayer

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3 AH, around the Battle of the Trench) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Placed in the middle of a long section on family law, this verse is a sudden and powerful command to “Guard strictly the prayers, especially the middle prayer (al-ṣalāt al-wusṭā), and stand before Allah in devotion.” This abrupt shift in topic serves to re-center the believer’s focus. After dealing with the worldly and emotional complexities of marriage and divorce, the Qur’an reminds the community that the ultimate foundation of their lives is the consistent, disciplined observance of prayer. The “middle prayer” is most commonly interpreted as the ‘Asr (afternoon) prayer, which often occurs during the busiest part of the day and is thus most easily missed. Verse 239 then provides a concession for times of fear, such as in battle, allowing for prayer to be performed “on foot or riding.” Once safety is restored, Allah should be remembered as He has taught.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, particularly in the context of increasing conflict.

• Primary evidence: The specific command to guard the prayers and the concession for times of “fear.” The hadith about the Prophet (ﷺ) missing the ‘Asr prayer during the Battle of the Trench, and his strong words about it, provides a powerful historical context for the emphasis on this particular prayer.
• Classical tafsir: There is much discussion about which prayer is the “middle prayer,” but the strongest and majority opinion, based on several hadith, is that it is the ‘Asr prayer. Commentators explain that the verse’s placement here reminds people that just as they must observe the limits of Allah in family law, they must be even more diligent in observing His rights in worship.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Emphasizing the absolute importance of maintaining the prayers, even in times of difficulty and conflict.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Historical Context.

widows. Verse 240 prescribes that husbands should make a bequest for their wives for a year’s maintenance and residence without them being driven out. Verse 241 states a general principle that “for divorced women is a provision according to what is acceptable – a duty upon the righteous.” Verse 242 concludes this entire block of family law by stating, “Thus does Allah make clear to you His verses that you might use reason.”

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Concluding the section on family law.

• Primary evidence: The legislative content. The existence of two different rulings for the widow’s waiting period/provision (one year vs. four months and ten days) is the primary evidence used by classical scholars to discuss abrogation in this context.
• Classical tafsir: This is a classic textbook case for abrogation (naskh) in Tafsir and Usul al-Fiqh. Commentators like Ibn Kathir clearly state that verse 2:234 abrogated the ‘iddah period of one year in verse 2:240, and the inheritance verses abrogated the obligation of the bequest of maintenance. The provision in verse 241 is seen by some as obligatory for all divorced women and by others as highly recommended.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Concluding the major legislative section on family law with a final emphasis on financial provision for women.
• Evidence Level: Legislative, with a known context of abrogation.

🏃 Verses 2:243-245 — The Lessons of Life, Death, and a Beautiful Loan to God

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Post-Uhud, c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After the long and detailed section on law, the Surah now shifts back to narrative and motivation, specifically to encourage the believers to fight in the way of Allah and not to fear death. This thematic shift strongly suggests a context of military struggle and the need to boost morale, such as after the setback at Uhud. Verse 243 tells a powerful story from the past of a people who “fled their homes in thousands, fearing death.” In response, “Allah said to them, ‘Die’; then He brought them back to life.” This story serves as a lesson that fleeing from one’s duty out of fear of death is futile, as life and death are solely in Allah’s hands. The passage then transitions to a direct command: “And fight in the cause of Allah and know that Allah is Hearing and Knowing.” This is followed by a beautiful verse (245) that encourages spending for the cause, framing it as “a goodly loan to Allah” (qarḍan ḥasanan), which He will multiply many times over.

Referenced Timeline: A historical event from the Children of Israel (narrative time), applied to the contemporary situation in Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The strong and direct themes of fighting, fearing death, and spending in the cause of Allah are all hallmarks of the post-Uhud period, which was a time of military consolidation and morale-building.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators narrate various Israelite traditions about the story in verse 243, with the common theme being that these people fled either a plague or a call to jihad, and Allah showed them that their flight could not save them from His decree. The “goodly loan” is explained as any sincere spending for a cause that pleases Allah, done without any expectation of worldly return.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Encouraging the believers to fight and spend in the way of Allah, and to overcome the fear of death.
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Historical Context.

👑 Verses 2:246-248 — The Story of Saul (Talut): A Lesson in Leadership and Faith

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Post-Uhud, c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Continuing the theme of motivating the believers for struggle, the Qur’an presents a detailed historical case study from the history of the Children of Israel after the time of Musa (AS). Their elders came to their prophet (Samuel) and demanded, “Appoint for us a king, and we will fight in the way of Allah.” But when fighting was prescribed, most of them turned away. Their prophet appointed a man named Talut (Saul) as their king. The elite among them immediately objected, complaining, “How can he have kingship over us while we are more worthy… and he has not been given any abundance of wealth?” They judged him by superficial worldly standards. Their prophet replied that Allah had chosen him and had granted him an abundance of knowledge and physical strength. As a sign of his legitimate kingship, Allah would return to them the Ark of the Covenant (at-Tābūt), containing tranquility (sakīnah) and relics from the families of Musa and Harun (Aaron).

Referenced Timeline: c. 11th Century BCE. The time of the Prophet Samuel and King Saul in Israelite history.

• Primary evidence: The detailed retelling of a specific historical episode from the lives of the prophets of Israel. Its placement immediately after a direct call to fight suggests its purpose is to provide a historical model and a set of lessons about holy war.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators provide the background from Israelite traditions, identifying the prophet as Samuel (Shamwil). They explain that the Israelites had been defeated and humiliated, and the Ark of the Covenant had been captured by their enemies (the Philistines). The return of the Ark was a major divine sign and a source of morale and courage for them, just as the Muslims were in need of such signs.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Teaching lessons about the nature of leadership, obedience, and divine selection through the story of Talut (Saul).
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

💧 Verses 2:249-251 — The Test at the River and the Victory of David over Goliath

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (Post-Uhud, c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): The story of Talut (Saul) continues. As he marched out with his army, he decided to test their discipline and obedience. He told them they would pass by a river, and that anyone who drank from it, except for a single handful, was not with him. The majority of his soldiers failed the test and drank their fill. Only a small, faithful minority obeyed. When this small group came face to face with the massive army of the enemy, Jalut (Goliath), the ones who were less firm in faith said, “We have no power today against Goliath and his soldiers.” But the truly faithful, who were certain they would meet their Lord, said, “How many a small company has overcome a large company by permission of Allah. And Allah is with the patient.” The story culminates with Dawud (David), a young soldier in Talut’s army, killing Jalut. As a result, Allah gave Dawud both kingship and wisdom.

Referenced Timeline: c. 11th Century BCE. The battle between the Israelites under Saul and the Philistines under Goliath.

• Primary evidence: The continuation of the narrative of Talut and the explicit themes of testing, patience, and the victory of a small group over a large one. This fits the post-Uhud context of rebuilding morale and discipline.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators narrate that out of an army of many thousands, only about 313 (the same number as the Muslims at Badr) passed the test at the river. This parallel would have been deeply meaningful for the companions. The story serves as a powerful reminder that Allah can grant victory through the most unexpected means.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Teaching that victory depends on faith and discipline, not numbers, through the story of the battle against Goliath.
• Evidence Level: Strong Thematic & Historical Context.

✨ Verses 2:252-253 — The Purpose of Prophets and Divine Preference

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These verses serve as a conclusion to the long historical narratives. Verse 252, referring to the stories just told, says, “These are the verses of Allah which We recite to you, [O Muhammad], in truth. And indeed, you are from among the messengers.” This serves to validate the Prophet’s (ﷺ) own prophethood by placing him in the same chain as the prophets whose stories he is relating. Verse 253 then states a general principle: “Those messengers – We preferred some of them over others.” It gives examples: among them was one to whom Allah spoke directly (Musa), and He raised some in rank. It mentions giving Jesus, son of Mary, clear signs and supporting him with the Holy Spirit. The verse concludes by stating that if Allah had willed, the people who came after these prophets would not have fought each other, but they differed, and some believed while others disbelieved. This is a statement on divine will and human free will.

Referenced Timeline: All of Prophetic History. It is a summarizing, theological reflection.

• Primary evidence: The summarizing nature of the verses (“These are the verses…”, “Those messengers…”) indicates a conclusion to a narrative section. The theological reflection on the differing ranks of prophets is a sophisticated theme appropriate for the Mid-Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain that while Muslims must not make distinctions in terms of believing in the prophets (as stated in 2:136), this verse clarifies that Allah Himself has granted them different ranks and special characteristics. This does not contradict the command for believers to respect them all equally.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Concluding the historical narratives and reflecting on the nature and hierarchy of prophethood.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

💰 Verse 2:254 — A Call to Spend Before the Final Day

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This verse is a powerful and urgent call to the believers to spend in charity from what Allah has provided them. The urgency comes from the eschatological warning that follows: “before there comes a Day when there will be no bargaining, nor friendship, nor intercession.” The verse emphasizes that on the Day of Judgment, worldly wealth and connections will be utterly useless. The only thing that will matter is the good deeds one has sent forth, chief among them being charity given for the sake of Allah. The verse ends with the stark statement, “And it is the disbelievers who are the wrongdoers,” which implies that failing to spend in the way of Allah when one has the means is a characteristic of disbelief and injustice.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with a focus on the coming Day of Judgment.

• Primary evidence: The command to “spend” (anfiqū) and the eschatological warning are recurring themes in Madinan surahs, which were focused on building a functional and charitable society.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators stress that the “spending” referred to here includes both the obligatory Zakat and voluntary charity (sadaqah). They explain that on the Day of Judgment, all worldly means of solving problems will be gone, and only one’s relationship with Allah, proven through faith and deeds like charity, will remain.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Urging the believers to give charity as a provision for the Day of Judgment.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

👑 Verse 2:255 — The Verse of the Throne (Ayat al-Kursi): The Supreme Declaration of God’s Majesty

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (90%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is arguably the most famous and revered verse in the entire Qur’an, known as Ayat al-Kursi (The Verse of the Throne). It is a magnificent, comprehensive, and powerful description of Allah’s attributes, power, and knowledge. It was revealed in Madinah to provide the believers with a definitive statement of monotheism (Tawhid) and to refute all forms of polytheism and incorrect conceptions of God. The verse declares that Allah is the One, the Ever-Living, the Self-Sustaining. Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. To Him belongs everything in the heavens and the earth. No one can intercede with Him except by His permission. He knows what is before and behind people, and they can encompass none of His knowledge except as He wills. His Throne (Kursī) extends over the heavens and the earth, and He feels no fatigue in preserving them. He is the Most High, the Most Great.

Referenced Timeline: Timeless/Theological. It describes the eternal and unchanging attributes of Allah.

“Allah – there is no deity except Him, the Ever-Living, the Sustainer of [all] existence. Neither drowsiness overtakes Him nor sleep…” (Qur’an 2:255)

• Primary evidence: The profound and comprehensive theological content, defining the essence of Tawhid. Its placement at the heart of this Madinan Surah gives it a central, creedal importance. Numerous hadith attest to its unique status and virtues.
• Classical tafsir: The Tafsirs dedicate enormous space to this single verse, explaining every attribute in detail. Ibn Kathir compiles the many hadith about its greatness, including the story of Ubayy ibn Ka’b, whom the Prophet (ﷺ) asked, “Which verse in the Book of Allah is the greatest?” and he replied, “Ayat al-Kursi,” to which the Prophet (ﷺ) gave his approval.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing the ultimate, definitive statement on the nature, attributes, and majesty of Allah.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Hadith & Scholarly Consensus.

🕊️ Verses 2:256-257 — No Compulsion in Religion: The Clear Path of Guidance

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 3-4 AH / 625-626 CE) — Confidence: High (based on Asbab al-Nuzul).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): Immediately following the most powerful declaration of God’s reality (Ayat al-Kursi), this verse lays down a foundational principle of Islamic ethics: “There is no compulsion in religion” (Lā ikrāha fīd-dīn). The verse explains that the right course has now become clear from the wrong, so there is no need to force it upon anyone. According to several reports, this was revealed concerning some of the Ansar in Madinah. Before Islam, if their wives had difficulty bearing children, they would make a vow that if they had a son, they would raise him as a Jew. When Islam came, and the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir was expelled, these Ansar wanted to force their sons, who had been raised as Jews, to convert to Islam. This verse was revealed to forbid them from doing so, establishing that faith must be a matter of sincere conviction, not coercion.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Establishing a core principle of religious freedom.

• Primary evidence: The explicit and unambiguous declaration, “There is no compulsion in religion.” The Asbab al-Nuzul concerning the sons of the Ansar is widely reported in classical tafsirs like that of Ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators are clear that this verse establishes a core principle. They discuss its relationship with the verses on jihad, explaining that jihad is to fight against political oppression and military aggression, to remove the “fitnah” that prevents people from freely choosing their faith, not to force the faith upon individuals.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community (specifically some Ansar).
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the principle of no compulsion in religion.
• Evidence Level: Specific & Widely-Reported Event (Asbab al-Nuzul).

☀️ Verse 2:258 — The Arrogance of a King: Abraham’s Debate with Nimrod

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After establishing the principles of Tawhid, the Qur’an now provides three short, powerful narratives to illustrate Allah’s absolute power over life and death. The first is the story of Prophet Ibrahim’s (Abraham’s) debate with a tyrannical king (identified in tradition as Nimrod), whose arrogance stemmed from the fact that “Allah had given him kingship.” Ibrahim’s argument is simple and profound: “My Lord is the one who gives life and causes death.” The king arrogantly retorts, “I give life and cause death,” and demonstrates this by pardoning a prisoner and executing another. Seeing the king’s foolish literalism, Ibrahim pivots to an unanswerable cosmological argument: “Indeed, Allah brings the sun from the east; so bring it from the west.” The king was “stupefied,” completely defeated by the argument.

Referenced Timeline: c. 19th Century BCE. An episode from the life of Prophet Ibrahim (AS).

• Primary evidence: The narrative style and the focus on the theme of God’s power over life and death. It is part of a triptych of stories illustrating this theme.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators like Ibn Kathir identify the king as Nimrod of Babylon. They praise Ibrahim’s brilliant debating tactic, which left the tyrant speechless and exposed the foolishness of his claim to divinity.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A lesson for the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Illustrating the defeat of arrogant disbelief through rational proof, via the story of Ibrahim and Nimrod.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

🐴 Verse 2:259 — The Man and the Ruined Town: A Century of Death and Revival

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the second narrative illustrating Allah’s power over life and death. It tells the story of a man who passed by a town that was in utter ruins. He wondered aloud, “How will Allah bring this to life after its death?” In response, Allah caused the man himself to die for a hundred years, and then resurrected him. Allah asked him, “How long have you remained?” He guessed, “A day or part of a day.” Allah told him the reality: “Rather, you have remained one hundred years.” As proof, Allah pointed to his food and drink, which had not rotted at all, and then to his donkey, which had decomposed into bones. Then, in front of his eyes, Allah reassembled the donkey’s bones, clothed them with flesh, and brought it back to life. The man, having witnessed this undeniable proof, declared, “I know that Allah is over all things competent.”

Referenced Timeline: A historical event from the Children of Israel, often identified with Ezra (‘Uzayr) or another prophet.

• Primary evidence: The second in a series of three stories with the same central theme. The narrative style is typical of Qur’anic storytelling (parables).
• Classical tafsir: There is a difference of opinion among commentators as to the identity of the man. Many, citing Israelite traditions, say it was Ezra (‘Uzayr). Others say it was another righteous man or prophet. Regardless of his identity, the lesson is the same: to provide an undeniable proof of Allah’s power to bring the dead back to life.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A lesson for the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing a direct, experiential proof of Allah’s power of resurrection.
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

🕊️ Verse 2:260 — Abraham’s Request: A Demonstration for a Certain Heart

Estimated placement in timeline: Early-to-Mid Madinan (c. 2-3 AH / 624-625 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the third and final story in the triptych about resurrection. It recounts how Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) asked Allah, “My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead.” Allah responded, “Do you not believe?” Ibrahim’s reply is crucial: “Yes, but [I ask] only that my heart may be satisfied.” His was not a question of doubt, but a request to move from the certainty of faith (‘ilm al-yaqīn) to the certainty of sight (‘ayn al-yaqīn). Allah then instructed him to take four birds, tame them so they would know him, cut them into pieces, place the pieces on separate mountains, and then call to them. When he did so, the birds came flying back to him, reassembled and alive. The verse concludes, “And know that Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise.”

Referenced Timeline: c. 19th Century BCE. An episode from the life of Prophet Ibrahim (AS).

• Primary evidence: The third in a series of stories with the same theme. The focus on a major prophet like Ibrahim gives the lesson a particular weight and authority.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators emphasize the beauty of Ibrahim’s reply, “that my heart may be satisfied,” as a model for seeking a deeper, more experiential faith. They narrate the details of the miracle, explaining how it served to give Ibrahim the certainty of direct observation to complement his already perfect faith.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: A lesson for the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing a participatory proof of resurrection to grant the “certainty of sight.”
• Evidence Level: Thematic & Narrative Coherence.

🌱 Verses 2:261-266 — Parables of Spending: The Bountiful Harvest vs. the Barren Rock

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): After powerfully establishing God’s reality and power, the discourse pivots back to the practical theme of spending in His cause, which was last mentioned before Ayat al-Kursi. This section uses a series of powerful agricultural parables to illustrate the nature of sincere charity and charity that is nullified. The first parable (v. 261) compares sincere charity to a single grain that grows seven spikes, with a hundred grains in each spike—a 700-fold return. The next verses (262-264) lay down the conditions for this reward: the spending must not be followed by reminders of one’s generosity (mann) or by injury (adhā). Charity that is followed by such behavior is compared to a smooth rock covered with a thin layer of soil, which is washed away completely by a heavy rain, leaving nothing behind. A third parable (v. 265) compares sincere charity, done seeking Allah’s pleasure, to a garden on high ground that receives heavy rain and produces double its yield. A final, terrifying parable (v. 266) asks if anyone would want to have a beautiful, fruitful garden in their old age, only to see it struck by a fiery whirlwind and completely burned down. This, the Qur’an says, is the state of one whose good deeds are nullified by showing off or other sins.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Using timeless parables to teach about charity.

• Primary evidence: The use of detailed parables (mathal) and the focus on the ethics of spending (infaq) are characteristic of Madinan surahs.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain each parable in detail. They define “mann” as reminding someone of the favor you did them, and “adhā” as harming them through words or actions related to the charity given. They emphasize that these actions completely destroy the spiritual reward of the charitable act.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Teaching the ethics and spiritual rewards of sincere charity through a series of powerful parables.
• Evidence Level: Thematic.

💸 Verses 2:267-274 — The Quality of Charity: Give From the Good You Love

Estimated placement in timeline: Mid-Madinan (c. 4-5 AH / 626-627 CE) — Confidence: Medium (80%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section continues the discourse on charity, focusing on the quality of what is given. Verse 267 directly commands the believers to “spend from the good things which you have earned and from that which We have produced for you from the earth.” It explicitly forbids them from intending to give away the “bad” or worthless part of their wealth—things they themselves would not accept except with closed eyes. The passage then contrasts the divine promise with the satanic whisper: “Satan threatens you with poverty and orders you to immorality, while Allah promises you forgiveness from Him and bounty.” The verses praise those who spend their wealth “by night and by day, secretly and publicly,” assuring them that they will have their reward and will have no fear or grief. The discourse specifies a particularly deserving group: the poor who are “restrained in the cause of Allah,” unable to travel and work—often referring to the companions dedicated to learning and worship (Ahl al-Suffah). The passage teaches that one should give to them without their having to ask, as they can be recognized by their dignified demeanor.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah.

• Primary evidence: The specific command about the quality of agricultural produce (“from that which We have produced for you from the earth”) is a direct fit for the agrarian context of the Ansar in Madinah. The mention of the Ahl al-Suffah is also a specific Madinan reference.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators narrate that some people would bring their worst, shriveled dates to give as charity, which prompted the revelation of verse 267. The description of the dignified poor is unanimously linked by commentators to the companions of the Suffah, who lived in the mosque and dedicated their lives to being with the Prophet (ﷺ).

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the rules for the quality of charity and identifying the most deserving recipients.
• Evidence Level: Based on Tafsir Reports & Historical Context.

📉 Verses 2:275-281 — The War on Usury (Riba): The Definitive Prohibition

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 8-9 AH / 630-631 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the most powerful and definitive prohibition of usury or interest (ribā) in the Qur’an. The passage begins with a terrifying description of those who consume riba, saying they will stand on the Day of Judgment “like one who is being beaten by Satan into insanity.” This is because they foolishly equate it with trade (“Trade is just like riba”), a claim the Qur’an refutes by stating “Allah has permitted trade and has forbidden riba.” The verses offer a path of repentance for past dealings but are uncompromising about the future. The tone escalates dramatically in verse 278-279, directly addressing the believers: “O you who have believed, fear Allah and give up what remains [due to you] of riba, if you are [truly] believers. And if you do not, then be warned of a war from Allah and His Messenger.” This is one of the most severe threats in the entire Qur’an. The passage concludes by balancing this severity with justice, allowing lenders to take back their principal capital, thereby neither inflicting nor suffering loss.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Establishing a cornerstone of Islamic economic law.

“And if you do not, then be warned of a war from Allah and His Messenger.” (Qur’an 2:279)

• Primary evidence: The absolute and final prohibition of riba, accompanied by the most severe of threats. The late dating is supported by the fact that it deals with a major structural economic issue, suitable for a well-established state. Some reports suggest these were among the very last verses of the Qur’an to be revealed.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators unanimously agree that these verses represent the final and most emphatic prohibition of all forms of riba. They explain that the “war” from Allah and His Messenger refers to both worldly conflict against a system that insists on riba and the state of being an enemy of God in the Hereafter.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Issuing the final and absolute prohibition of usury (riba) and establishing a new economic ethic.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Scholarly Consensus.

✍️ Verse 2:282 — The Verse of Debt (Ayat al-Dayn): A Charter for Financial Contracts

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 8-9 AH / 630-631 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This is the longest verse in the entire Qur’an, and it is a detailed, comprehensive guide to documenting financial transactions, specifically debts and deferred payments. Revealed in the late Madinan period, it serves as a foundational text for Islamic contract law. The verse commands believers who contract a debt for a specified term to “write it down.” It specifies that a scribe should write it between them in justice. The debtor should dictate the terms honestly. If the debtor is unable to dictate (due to incompetence or disability), his guardian should do so. Two male witnesses should be called to witness the contract. If two men are not available, then one man and two women (“so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her”). The verse commands scribes and witnesses not to refuse their duty and to act justly. It concludes by making an exception for on-the-spot trade where writing is not necessary, but still recommends having witnesses.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah. Legislating detailed rules for financial contracts.

• Primary evidence: The highly detailed, specific, and practical legal content is a clear sign of late Madinan revelation, when the focus was on building the detailed institutions of a functioning state and society.
• Classical tafsir: This verse is a cornerstone of Islamic commercial law (Fiqh al-Mu’amalat). Commentators like al-Qurtubi and Ibn Kathir provide extensive analysis of every legal principle contained within it, from the rules of writing contracts to the qualifications of witnesses.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Establishing the legal requirement and detailed procedure for documenting debts and contracts.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Overwhelming Scholarly Consensus.

🤝 Verses 2:283-284 — Pledges, Trusts, and Divine Knowledge

Estimated placement in timeline: Late Madinan (c. 8-9 AH / 630-631 CE) — Confidence: High (95%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): This section continues the theme of securing financial transactions. Verse 283 provides a practical alternative for when one cannot find a scribe to write down a debt, especially while traveling: a pledge (rihān) can be taken as security. It then emphasizes the immense importance of trusts. If one party entrusts the other (i.e., forgoes the writing or the pledge), then the one who is entrusted must “discharge his trust religiously and fear Allah his Lord.” The verse strictly forbids concealing testimony, stating that whoever does so has a “sinful heart.” Verse 284 then serves as a powerful concluding reminder of Allah’s omniscience, which underpins all these laws. It states that “to Allah belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. Whether you show what is within yourselves or conceal it, Allah will bring you to account for it.” He then forgives and punishes whom He wills, for He is over all things competent.

Referenced Timeline: Contemporary Madinah, with a concluding theological statement.

• Primary evidence: The continuation of financial legislation. The profound theological statement in verse 284 is linked in hadith to the revelation of the final verses, placing it at the very end of the Madinan period.
• Classical tafsir: Commentators explain the legal rulings of pledges. Regarding verse 284, they narrate hadith from Sahih Muslim where the companions came to the Prophet (ﷺ) in distress, and he instructed them to say, “We hear and we obey.” In response to their submission, Allah revealed the final two verses, which brought them immense relief.

• Location/Context: Madinah
• Primary Actors: The Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing rules for pledges and trusts, and issuing a powerful statement on divine omniscience and accountability.
• Evidence Level: Legislative & Specific Historical Event.

💖 Verses 2:285-286 — The Believer’s Creed and the Lord’s Prayer: The Merciful Conclusion

Estimated placement in timeline: The Final Revelation (Late 10 AH / 632 CE) — Confidence: High (100%).

Context & Events (Asbab al-Nuzul): These final two verses, known as “Amanar-Rasul” or the “Khawatim” (the closing verses) of Surah Al-Baqarah, are among the most celebrated and powerful in the Qur’an. They are said to have been revealed in the heavens during the Prophet’s Mi’raj (Ascension) and then again near the very end of his life in Madinah. They serve as the perfect conclusion to this monumental Surah. Verse 285 is a declaration of the complete and unwavering faith of the Messenger (ﷺ) and all the believers. It summarizes the articles of faith: belief in Allah, His angels, His books, and His messengers, without making any distinction between them. It is a creed of universal submission. Verse 286 is a direct response to the hardship the companions felt from verse 284. It is a statement of divine mercy and a beautiful prayer. It begins with the principle, “Allah does not burden a soul beyond that it can bear.” It then provides the believers with a prayer to their Lord, asking Him not to punish them for their mistakes or forgetfulness, not to lay on them a burden like that of past nations, not to burden them with more than they can bear, and to pardon, forgive, and have mercy upon them, and to grant them victory over the disbelieving people.

Referenced Timeline: Timeless (the believer’s creed) and Contemporary Madinah (a prayer for the community).

“Allah does not charge a soul except [with that within] its capacity. It will have [the consequence of] what [good] it has gained, and it will have [the consequence of] what [evil] it has earned.” (Qur’an 2:286)

• • Primary evidence: The content itself, which is a summary of faith and a concluding prayer. Numerous strong hadith in Bukhari and Muslim attest to the immense virtue of these two verses, their special revelation, and the Prophet’s (ﷺ) practice of reciting them every night, stating that they are “sufficient” for the one who recites them.
  • Classical tafsir: Commentators unanimously celebrate these verses. They narrate the hadith of the Mi’raj and the story of the companions’ relief upon their revelation. They explain that the verse clarifies that a person is only accountable for their deliberate actions and intentions (“what it has earned”), not for fleeting, unintentional thoughts.

• Location/Context: Madinah / The Heavens (Mi’raj)
• Primary Actors: The Prophet (ﷺ) and the Muslim community.
• Function in Narrative: Providing a concluding summary of the believer’s creed and a comprehensive prayer for mercy and victory.
• Evidence Level: Overwhelming Hadith & Scholarly Consensus.